The 6th mass extinction is here. Climate collapse is unstoppable. Civilization can no longer sustain us. Research into resilient crops and natural cultivation methods for food security in temperate climates.*
*This page is a work in progress, information may not be accurate. Do not eat any plant you are not 100% familiar with.
Everyday I ask myself, what should I do? As our planet barrels towards an uninhabitable future, our oligarchs become more powerful and everyday life becomes more dystopian, what can I do to stop all this? The most important realization is that none of us are going to change the world. We are not going to save the planet from another extinction (it's already happening). We are not going to save the billions of human and non-human lives that will perish. Already over 80 billion land animals are killed each year for consumption, and that is only the tip of the iceberg. Words cannot do justice to the absolutely immense horrors civilization is responsible for. Clinging to some vision of a better future is tempting, but the evidence against this couldn't be more obvious. The destructive power of civilization has been growing for thousands of years now. Behind all the lies about progress is the simple truth: our planet is dying and there is nothing we can do about it. Individuals more intelligent and skillful than us have been trying for centuries. And so we are perhaps one of the few generations of humans to live through the momentous shift climate collapse is causing. Nothing like this has ever happened in the entire history of humanity. Mankind is entering a new era.
In the face of all this, how can I be of any meaningful service? Why spend my time researching and growing food? I believe having an interactive relationship with nature is one of the most direct ways to feel satisfied and empowered. And only individuals engaged with nature are capable of forming communities that truly provide for our physical, social and spiritual needs. When our empire inevitably collapses, these communities have the potential to be the building blocks of a new society, to form a federation of self-sufficient tribes. Keeping land at the forefront of both individual and societal success is an effective path forward because it is meaningful at every level - whether you just want to not hate the world, or you want to improve the living conditions of your community, or you want to build a new society. A healthy ecosystem filled with perennial food plants is the foundation of resilient, egalitarian communities. Even disregarding the bigger picture, this perspective is nothing but practical. How will you feed your family when industrial agriculture fails or groceries become too expensive to afford? Growing food is a concrete way of solving a very real and imminent problem without depending on those who seek to enslave us and destroy our planet. There's nothing glamorous about this, it's hands in the dirt kind of change, but it's real and it happens right before your eyes.
Growing food doesn't have to be hard, lots of vegetables even grow like weeds! Grass lawns were once a symbol of wealth, yet now they sit in front of even the most impoverished homes. This paradox was intentionally designed through generations of capitalist intervention. For years I was utterly confused, why are some vegetables considered to grow too well and eradicated while right next door people go hungry? Is there an abundance of food or isn't there!? I will leave you to answer this yourself, but it certainly doesn't have to be this way. Only within the last few decades did we gain access to thousands of seeds from every corner of the earth. Consider how many generations of work went into finding, domesticating and improving these crops throughout human history! This is a privilege few could even dream of until now. As the world transforms into something entirely new, it has in the very same moment bestowed upon us the plants of salvation. And with them comes the power to create a landscape unlike any before in history. A garden that is a meadow, orchard, and forest all in one. Food is everywhere, underneath your feet, brushing past your knees, blossoming towards the sky and hanging from the trees. A garden that draws all creatures towards it, that fills them up and envelopes them. A garden that provides for everyone within it while magically regenerating, becoming stronger and more complex every year. Close your eyes and reach your hand out, this is all that must be done for the day's sustenance.
On a more practical note, this research is an attempt to prepare for the extinction and help communities build resilient food systems. Most people have land with poor soil and very little knowledge about growing food. Finding crops that can grow in this environment and serve as staple foods is therefore of the utmost importance. Ultimately all this may accomplish very little, but every day that a garden lives it serves the creatures within.
All of my of research is published and updated regularly right here on this page. It will always be available for free. My only hope is that I can help humanity adapt to the terrifying future that awaits us. With the wrath of gaia at our doorstep, this is our final call into the wilderness.
Nevertheless, a new breed of explorers has arisen, those who are disenchanted with the bland products of the supermarkets, those who still feel the primordial urge to plant, those whose tastes are adventurous. There are those whose pocketbooks are thin who can benefit from green leaves easily grown at home. Finally, there are the few who recognize that the vegetables we emphasize now are but a part of a larger, and mostly still available heritage, a heritage whose potentials have still not been fully realized.
- Edible Leaves Of The Tropics
How do we even begin to feed ourselves? What are we growing and eating? I personally do not grow nearly enough food to feed myself. It is a difficult task that most people throughout most of history have not attempted. Even after the advent of agriculture, a significant portion of food was often foraged from the local environment. But the natural abundance that once covered the earth has been almost completely destroyed. As agriculture evolved to power an ever-expanding civilization, forests were felled and landscapes were permanently disfigured. We burned down ecosystems masterfully designed over millennia, teeming with life and full of nutritious food, in an attempt to grow something a fraction as productive in their place, all with big clumsy hands and little human brains. The plants that sprouted in these graveyards were not grown for people, but markets and masters; they could not nourish us in the same way. All this is only to say that growing all of our own food in a truly compassionate and sustainable way requires a monumental, persistent effort and has not been the norm for any period of human history. But the old world is gone and it is never coming back, so we must do what we can given our circumstances. Growing only a portion of our food still has enormous benefits and can certainly create some sense of food security, even if it is not complete. So returning to our original question, what should we grow? What plants do people eat to survive?
The broadest pattern that emerges for practically any species on earth is the foods that provide the highest net energy and nutrition (and are digestible by the specific anatomy of the creature) in any given landscape become primary sources of sustenance. That means a gorilla that has access to fruits will generally prioritize those over leaves. Eating 20 pounds of fruit is much easier than eating 20 pounds of leaves. And like many other mammals, humans gravitate towards high-density sources of energy like nuts, fruits, roots and seeds to sustain themselves. Leafy vegetables, while an essential addition to our diet, require a much larger quantity to provide the same amount of energy.
This happens to work out quite well for us because nuts and fruits are some of the easiest, most productive perennial crops. Even with a limited amount of space we have many options, including oak, hazelnut, plum and mulberry. Once planted, they can often continue producing for decades - talk about a return on investment! Tree crops also require significantly less resources to produce, meaning they will often tolerate poorer soil and less frequent watering than many herbaceous crops. In this way they are extremely efficient at producing food. Nuts and other chewy foods are also an essential edition to human diets for proper jaw and skull development. The benefits of trees are truly endless and there is no easier way to improve the health of a landscape. Fruits and nuts are the foundation of sustainable agriculture and should make up a significant portion of our diet.
Root crops are also a very dense source of energy, often more so than fruit. Cold-hardy, perennial root crops are another staple of sustainable agriculture and include natives like sunchoke, groundnut and lotus. While perennial roots are more work than simply picking fruit off a tree, they usually require little maintenance once planted and can often be harvested every year. Annual roots may require more work to grow, but can significantly expand our options with some heavy hitters like achira and taro. Alongside nuts and fruits, roots are another significant addition to our diet.
Our next consideration is the smallest of the bunch: seeds. When people grow all their own food, seeds are usually how they do it. Seeds, including grains and pulses, are calorically dense, can be eaten in quantity, and are easily stored or transported. This is why almost every civilization on earth has been built on them. But growing grains sustainably can be difficult - most often it results in a monoculture that degrades the soil while providing very little ecological value. And to top it all off, grains require the most labor of any food mentioned here to grow, harvest and process. This is not to say they should be avoided, only that how they are grown and incorporated into our diet needs to be reconsidered. Natives like the sunflower are great for insects and pulses are a valuable addition for their ability to fix nitrogen in the soil. But even so, this category of foods is generally comprised of labor-intensive annuals that are difficult to incorporate into more permanent food systems. Ultimately it may be useful to think of seeds, grains, and pulses as another addition to a varied diet and not the caloric staple of every meal.
Finally, we arrive at leafy vegetables and the like. While they don't provide the bulk of our sustenance, they are necessary for vitamins and minerals (and flavor!). They also bring diversity and excitement to the garden. Here too we can focus on perennials that provide a crop every year with little effort after the initial planting. Plants like turkish rocket and seombadi provide excellent perennial alternatives to some of the more common vegetables you may be used to eating. Succulents like prickly pear or dolnamul can turn barren land with very little fertility into an oasis of fresh food. Plants that generate a lot of biomass like udo can offer us regular harvests while producing organic matter for mulching. Weedy annuals like perilla can compete with other vegetation and turn unproductive land into a thicket of food in a single season. The options are truly limitless, and every plant has its own unique traits that can be utilized to our advantage.
The food we choose to grow is also fundamentally related to how we eat. If we only eat a few times per day, each meal needs to be extremely calorically dense, further deepening our reliance on grains. But what if we ate more like the gorilla? It's a lot easier to eat five pounds of fruits and nuts over the course of an entire day than it is to eat it at only three meals. Maybe changing what we eat also means changing how we eat.
The methods I use all fit into a singular holistic approach - working with natural systems to incorporate food crops into the landscape. The plants are our teachers. This mean learning from them without any preconceived notions about how they should grow or what they should be doing. We are watching and listening, not expecting. It is absolutely essential that we approach this with a sense of humility, respect, and the recognition that plants are complex and intelligent living beings. We will never understand the endless layers of nuance that guide their growth, but lucky for us we don't need to. All we need to do is listen closely and offer our service.
Healthy soil is the backbone of temperate food forests, and plants are natural soil builders. Plants build soil using a few primary methods. Sending roots into the soil adds organic matter, cycles nutrients, aerates the soil and gives it structure. This builds soil from within. After the plants die, their stems and leaves fall over and act as mulch until they fully decompose. Dead plants keep the soil from drying out, return nutrients to the topsoil and offer a sheltered microclimate for everything happening at ground level. It is often the case that soil already has enough of everything it needs, we just need to help make it bioavailable by cycling it through plants and turning it into into mulch. This builds soil from above. And the way plants naturally die and return to the ground creates a thick but not overly dense layer of mulch. Most importantly, it has structure. It allows space for other seeds to germinate and grow while still offering shelter from the elements. When one plant dies it creates the right environment for the next plant to take its spot, to work the soil with its roots, and then to become mulch for the next plant. This is the genius of nature.
So our two most important methods of building soil are using the power of roots to work the soil, and returning organic matter back to the topsoil as mulch. In the garden we can imitate these patterns by letting plants cover as much ground as possible. The more roots we have working the soil for us, the better. Of course, we can't let every single plant grow to maturity or else there would be no room for our food crops. This is where we come in. We can curate which plants to let grow and which to cut down. Instead of ripping everything up and dumping an even mat of mulch on our beds, we can build the soil more naturally. By cutting down plants in the garden and using them as mulch, we are imitating a natural soil-building pattern.
Encouraging plants to cover the soil and continuously decompose has added benefits as well. First, it creates the right environment for insects. Bugs need a architecturally diverse landscape with a variety of physical niches to take advantage of. They don't like flat sheets of mulch. If we didn't have the right balance of insects, we would constantly be fighting against them. This method of management invites them all in to sort it out amongst themselves. The insects can then become our partners as primary decomposers of dead plants, continuously adding fertility to the soil. Second, it creates the right environment for beneficial fungal networks. Plants depend on fungi to survive and thrive. The more roots they can partner with and the more organic matter we can feed them, the better.
Practically, implementing this system is fairly straightforward because we are letting nature do most of the work for us. There will be a host of plants growing in our garden beds whether we like it or not. If any plants are competing too much with our food crops, we just cut them down ur uproot them and let them fall where they are. The more aggressive the species is the more often those plants will need to be removed. If we let them grow they may create too much shade or spread too aggressively. But the species that present little competition to our food crops need less management. Some of them may be edible themselves, some may attract beneficial insects, some may fix nitrogen, some may protect the soil. We are looking at the ground and seeing which plants are working for us and which ones aren't. Those that aren't get ripped up and now they are working for us as mulch!
As an example, in my garden beds I allow many plants to grow, some of which are: Duchesnea indica [mock strawberry] acts as a non-invasive groundcover; Trifolium repens [white clover] and any other leguminous plants fix nitrogen; Lobelia inflata [Indian tobacco] is a native medicinal; Stellaria media [chickweed] is a delicous edible. There are also many that I pull up and mulch in place with regularly: Muhlenbergia schreberi [nimblewill] or any other weedy grasses spread quickly by rhizome and discourage vegetable seed germination; Erechtites hieraciifolius [American burnweed] multiplies rapidly by seed and can easily take over garden beds. It is always helpful to watch how a plant interacts with the its environment before deciding what to do with it. There are times where it may be beneficial to let a weed grow to maturity, allowing its roots to improve the soil, before cutting it down and using all the biomass it created as mulch. Even a plant like Persicaria maculosa [lady's thumb] may be useful in the right circumstance; when regenerating a patch of eroded soil, this was one of of the main plants to start growing once the ground had been stabilized. It's ability to grow quickly practically anywhere is now helping stabilize the ground with its roots, add organic matter, create shade for the topsoil and shelter for insects. It was then replaced by other plants with my assistance (like the profilic feverfew), but it served me well until then. In this case, it was working for me and not against me. There is no right or wrong here, just fluid and spontaneous responses to what's in front of us. Natural processes are constantly working towards a healthier ecosystem and are ultimately doing the vast majority of work for us. Our role is not to redefine these processes, but use them to guide the environment towards productivity and diversity.
But remember that even with all the help we provide, some plants will simply not be suited for our soil or climate without a lot of work. So it's just as important to find the right species or varieties for our specific conditions. This is why our plant selection prioritizes resiliency, and those that do survive become become stronger with every generation. Before long the food will be growing itself. Of course, regular maintenance is unavoidable. In order to grow certain plants we must halt the process of succession - otherwise our garden would quickly become a deciduous forest (at least where I live). Incorporating tree crops helps us work with succession to a certain degree, but ultimately there is no way to avoid the basic work of weeding/mulching and transplanting/dispersing seeds. Despite what many claim, a garden that does not require any work won't last long. Every garden requires maintenance, but this method aligns our efforts with natural processes and allows us to intervene intelligently, only when it is actually useful. This is not a step by step plan with a full proof outcome. This is a dance
All of the vegetables we grow in the garden were once plants growing the wild, surviving on their own without any help from humans. They drank only rain water and took what nutrients they needed from the soil. They produced seed which then went on to germinate and grow of its own accord, again without any help from humans. So why must gardening be so complicated? Why do we struggle to grow plants that often grow prolifically when left alone in their natural habitat? Here are three perspectives to approach this from:
Breeding: Many annuals and biennials have been bred for hundreds or thousands of years, and they are no longer adapted to thrive in the face of competition and scarce natural resources. Generations of selection have weakened many of their natural responses to disease and browsing.
Approach: Select for specimens that can thrive with little care and let go of those that cannot. This will lead to a resilient population capable of propagating itself.
Environment: Plants evolve alongside their environment, carving out unique niches in which they can successfully grow and propagate themselves. We can move a plant from the wilderness to our gardens, but we cannot move the landscape, climate, wildlife and the endless number of other, unknown variables.
Approach: Acclimate crops to a new environment by creating favorable growing conditions and weeding selectively. The plants will evolve alongside your management practices.
Density: Even when a crop has been bred for resiliency and is well-adapted to our local environment, we are usually still attempting to grow it at a much higher density than would naturally be the case. Healthy soil that can support our crops depends on a diversity of plants in constant evolution with one another.
Approach: Grow a diverse variety of crops alongside each other to lower the density of any given species, keep soil healthy, and encourage a balanced insect population.
This three-pronged approach helps me understand the vegetables I grow in a broader context and offers a simple framework for growing crops in a way that becomes both easier and more sustainable over time. If perennials are the skeleton of the garden, annuals are the muscles. They react to changes in the landscape and can move around quickly to find the right niche. As an example, digging up perennial roots often creates exposed soil, something we may try to normally avoid. But this is an event annuals can take advantage of because they love exposed soil. And this is where annuals excel in the natural garden, not as the foundation but as a dynamic reaction to the landscape, living and evolving in real time alongside our perennials.
Some short-lived plants will self-sow with such vigor that they become weeds after a single generation. In my garden this would apply to plants like stone parsley, prescott chervil, feverfew, dandelion, and chickweed. These often propagate rapidly without any assistance after just tossing their seeds around. This group is typically wild vegetables or those will little breeding done. Management of these plants is just killing them in areas where they are not wanted.
Then there are plants which will naturalize in the right conditions but will not become weedy as easily. In my garden this applies to plants like carrots, turnips, kale, burdock and perilla. This group seems to be more common for cultivated plants, and may require transplanting and extra care for the first 2-3 generations until the crops are acclimated and enough seed has been deposited in the soil. These plants require more thought about where they are naturalized and how the seeds are dispersed. A good rule of thumb is to let the seeds ripen fully on the plants, until they are hard and brown. Then just before they begin dropping on their own, I will disperse them in their preferred areas. For some plants like perilla I will leave the seeds and dead flowering shoots as they are over winter, and then disperse them in the spring. This will improve their chances by keeping the seeds dry over winter and prevent them from being covered by fallen leaves. This can be useful if the flowering shoot can remain upright over winter and the seeds don't drop. But most of the time the seeds will drop on their own before winter anyway, or the plant can set seed and then germinate to overwinter within the same growing season, or the seeds may prefer being stratified. So usually I just disperse them as they ripen. On their own, seeds usually can't travel more than a few feet and don't know where they will succeed. So we are helping them propagate by acting as their eyes and legs. Management of these plants consists only of weeding selectively around them to ensure they are not shaded out by nearby plants.
Keep in mind that naturalizing vegetables in the garden can be a long process and may take many years. Most vegetables will simply not be suited to grow naturally in your specific climate and soil. The weeds that grow in your area can provide some insight as to what families of plants will grow easily, but if often comes down to lots of trial and error. As an example, I have a much easier time with plants in the carrot family than I do with plants in the mustard family. Your specific climate, soil and management practices will lead to unique results.
Many online references about certain vegetables self-sowing are completely inaccurate in my garden. I think they are often referring to beds that are kept clean, regularly cleared back to bare soil, tilled and irrigated. In these conditions pretty much anything will self-sow if you let it go to seed. Living ground covers, mulching in place, weed competition and reliance on rainwater leads to different results. Plants that I have had success naturalizing in the these conditions are marked as self-sowing in the individual listings. Wild vegetables or those that have had minimal breeding work will often do better in these conditions. But whether the plants we grow are wild or domesticated, they need to move in the direction of self-growing, self-propagating genetics that are adapted to intense competition, eratic weather and unpredictable rainfall. I am convinced this is the only meaningful direction for the future that lies ahead of us.
Annuals that must be direct seeded into cultivated soil or transplanted every year are the most work and should generally be limited to those which provide an exceptional value. The most important plants are seeds like amaranth or beans and roots like taro or achira. Members of the gourd family are staple vegetables and would fall into this category as well. Others like tomatoes or mustards may be on this list depending on what you are interested in.
I typically prefer to transplant members of this category as they can get a quicker start and are less bothered by nearby competition. Trying to direct seed amaranth or tomatoes into a living ground cover is pretty much impossible due to how small the seeds are, and plants with bigger seeds like beans, gourds or sunflowers are often dug up by rodents. For these reasons I prefer transplanting. Once the seedling has at least two true leaves, find the right spot, clear away any immediate competition, and then water the plant once it's in the ground (or plant before it's about to rain). Big seeds palatable to rodents should be grown out a bit larger before transplanting as rodents will still dig up young plants if some of the seed is still attached to the roots. Plant them right alongside your perennials, if there is little room just cut the perennials back and use the trimmings as mulch. In my climate, if this is done in spring and the soil is decent, any additional watering may not be necessary and the plants will be well-established come summertime.
Invasive plants are not well defined. Generally they are considered plants which are non-native and cause some form of disruption to the local environment. They will often displace natives or prevent natives from growing and propagating in their normal manner. This is seen as a bad thing because non-native plants do not have the same diverse set of ecological functions that many natives do. Invasives usually cannot support the rich web of life that has spent thousands of years evolving alongside native plants. This is one of the reasons so much time and energy is spent trying to get rid of them (along with a healthy amount of corporate propaganda, of course).
But realistically, we are incapable of eradicating invasives and restoring native ecosystems to their former glory on any meaningful scale. Our society is simply not prepared to accomplish such a monumental feat. What is happening right now, the widespread exchange of plants across the world, must be seen in the context of a) a global civilization in the process of collapsing and b) an ongoing mass extinction due to climate change. Our world is changing, and so is our flora. The 'invasives' are here to stay, and it's about time we get our heads out of the sand. In hundreds of thousands of years, what we consider invasive plants will become native plants to an entirely different ecology. These changes are already in motion, and no amount of human effort will stop them. This is the start of a vastly different evolutionary timeline, as has been the case after every great extinction to happen on earth. So don't worry about 'restoring' habitats. The impending disaster is going to make all of that absolutely meaningless, and your time is better spent working towards zero-input agricultural innovation.
Once we accept that invasives are not going anywhere, the question then becomes: how can we work with them and use them to our advantage? Clearly eradicating them is not possible. And letting them run wild will just result in a big tangled mess with very little biodiversity. But we can treat them just like any other plant in our garden and learn how to manage them thoughtfully, taking advantage of their unique traits to help enrich the landscape whenever possible. Some, like Ampelopsis brevipedunculata [porcelain vine], are often detrimental to productive and diverse ecosystems. But others, like Paulownia tomentosa [empress tree], are an incredible addition to the regenerative garden and can take a prominent role in landscape restoration. Or consider Dioscorea polystachya [Chinese yam] which propagates aggressively but is a staple food crop and provides a high quality, perennial source of starch.
Invasives are some of the toughest, most efficient plants out there. They can grow on degraded land, generate tons of carbon and put roots in soil faster than many other plants. Not to mention how smart they are at rapidly propagating themselves. These are amazing and useful qualities, and some of them even produce food! This is why I include many of them in my garden and encourage others to do so as well. In the face of climate collapse, mass ecological destruction, and worsening food scarcity, invasives are a unique set of plants we can't afford to ignore. It's time to stop thinking of them as the problem and start wondering how they can be part of the solution. As sad as the current situation is, our only option moving forward is to let go of the past and see these plants with eyes unclouded.
Life feeds on non-life. Plants feed on sunlight and carbon in the air. They drink water and eat stone in the ground. What's happening in your garden now is the same fundamental process that has turned earth from an uninhabitable rock into a fertile, soft cushion that supports life. Rock into plant into soil, on and on, multiplying, dividing, fertilizing. Nature turned a rock and some water into a constellation of sensing, feeling, compassionate, intelligent beings. This power created you as well. So when you walk out into the garden you are among your own likeness. Hard turned into soft, of one elemental passion - to feel.
Now let us introduce a term used by Will Bonsal: eco-efficiency. This is essentially how efficiently a plant can make use of local resources to turn non living things into living things (organic matter). It is not just the nutrient requirements, but how adept the plant is at gathering resources from the soil, the air, and the sun. The ideal eco-efficient plant would be one that tolerates deep shade, can be planted into the most difficult soil, requires only a minimal amount of water, fixes nitrogen, and grows very quickly to generate a lot of biomass. This plant doesn't quite exist, but you can see how it would be extremely useful in the garden. It would be very good at turning the environment into a paradise of organic matter. And a garden runs on organic matter, the more you have the more fertility there will be, the more life will spawn, and ultimately the more productive it will become.
The plants that are the most eco-efficient are therefore the ones best at turning this hard and harsh rock of a planet into a soft and gentle habitat to support life through the creation of organic matter. And our number one star of eco efficiency will always be trees, nothing else even comes close. Trees are the foundation of fertility. Enough food-producing trees will not just replace any nutrients lost from regular harvests, but multiply them many times over. Trees heal the soil, they use their roots to massage rocks and their branches to dispense medicine in the form of fallen leaves. They regulate the temperature, purify the air, pull water out of the sky and produce sweet orbs of energy that sustain life. To what better deity could one offer their service? What power is more reliable, more effective, more useful, than that of a tree?
My version of farming the wild primarily involves scouting out good locations, often nearby public nature trails, planting groups of mostly native, high-value food plants in the spring or fall, and then visiting these locations a few times a year to ensure they are not being neglected. Planting perennials in fall is easiest because the weather is suitable for getting the plants established and they will survive just fine come spring time. Maintenance is just clearing away any immediate competition if it is threatening the plant in question, and perhaps dumping some water on it if there is a stream nearby. The best locations will be accessible but not visible to passerbies, with enough sun for the desired crops and enough moisture in the soil to support them. I like to find locations as close to home as possible. This makes everything easier, from planting to maintenance to harvesting, and I strongly encourage others to do the same. Sunny locations can be hard to find but are worth looking for, otherwise one can plant things where there are enough gaps in the canopy. Plants and tools can be carried in a bag or backpack (although not much more than the plants and small shovel or hori hori are usually needed), and one should always remain cautious about giving away what they are up to. Get in, do what you must, and get out.
Plant selection is particularly important as these plants must be able to survive mostly on their own, drinking only rainwater and competing well enough with surrounding vegetation. I focus on those that can propagate themselves and spread easily so that way they are doing most of the work for me. The plants can come from my garden or they may be a division from some other location in the wild. Cattail, wapato and sunchoke are fairly common in my area, and their roots can be dug up and transplanted elsewhere to increase their abundance. Fruits and nuts like plums and hazelnuts create dense patches over time. Pawpaws also spread by suckers but can't pollinate with the mother plant, so dividing and replanting near a genetically different tree is beneficial to their prolonged survival and to all the wildlife that will eat the resulting fruit. Bury a milkweed rhizome or some raspberry canes and they will spread like crazy in just a few years. These are all high-value food plants that can multiply over time. Plant some desert false indigo or willow to help regenerate the soil while you're there. Ultimately our work will not only help feed us but also improve the ecosystem. It is usually easier to plant things near each other so you only need to maintain one small island per site, but that will always depend on your desired outcome. Just as with our gardens at home, the sky is the limit.
To those who say it is inappropriate to plant non-native species in the wild, I should remind you that we are in the midst of the sixth great extinction, our ecosystems are collapsing and worldwide famine is inevitable. I would also like to point out the incredible privilege inherent in owning a piece of clear cut land that some shmuck somewhere has designated as a space acceptable for growing non-natives. Why you think all that is preferable to planting them in the wild is beyond me. If you are truly one of the famed gardening geniuses that can grow all your own food using only native species than I encourage and support you. But you are not. Certainly we should avoid introducing those plants which will proliferate and wreak havoc on the nearby ecosystem, but there is idealism and then there is practicality. So if you would rather starve to death than put a non-native plant in the ground then that is your prerogative and I will happily grow some amaranth on your grave after your short life is over.
The garden I charted was… covered with a riotous growth so luxuriant and so apparently planless that any ordinary American or European visitor, accustomed to the puritanical primness of north European gardens, would have supposed... that it must be a deserted one.
-Edgar Anderson
The methods we use to grow, maintain, harvest and propagate crops can make all the difference in both the health of the ecosystem and how much work it requires to maintain. These are the basic principles I use in my garden.
Feed the soil. Focus on crops that feed the soil. Plants like Amaranthus caudatus [amaranth] and Canna edulis [achira] generate large amounts of top growth for mulching. Plants like Raphanus sativus [radish] and Brassica rapa [turnip] have fat roots that aerate the soil and feed beneficial bacteria when they decompose. Plants like Elaeagnus multiflora [goumi] and Phaseolus coccineus [runner bean] fix nitrogen in the soil and keep it productive.
Build structure. Loose soil gets compacted and washed away with heavy rains. Healthy soil has structure that improves drainage, aeration and water retention, all while holding it together and preventing erosion. Roots build structure within the soil, while vegetation and mulching in place builds structure above the soil. Tilling is avoided because it destroys soil structure and the fungal networks that depend on it.
Weed selectively. Plants growing naturally in our beds can serve important functions. Many are edible themselves, help protect the soil, fix nitrogen or attract beneficial insects. Any plants that offer little function or excessively compete with our food crops are pulled and mulched in place.
Disperse seeds naturally. Naturally dispersed seeds land in slightly different niches and germinate intermittently. This improves the resiliency of the population in the face of unpredictable weather patterns and pressure from disease or insects. This also allows the soil to function as our seed bank, holding large quantities of seed until they are ready to grow.
Annuals alongside perennials. Perennials offer stability and reliable production. Annuals have a different niche altogether and should be treated as such. They love taking advantage of disturbed soil and quickly filling in empty spaces between our perennials. Their seeds should be dispersed across the garden beds so they can spring into action when an opportunity presents itself.
Roots alongside roots. Roots are an important source of energy, but many require deep soil disturbance to harvest. These should be primarily grown alongside other complementary root crops. This makes harvesting easier, ensures we don't damage nearby perennials, and limits the impact on soil structure.
Harvesting is selecting. Harvesting the weakest plants allows the population to become stronger and better adapted to local conditions with every generation. Our first priority is not a big harvest, but plants with resilient and productive genetics.
Use local materials. Most gardeners have access to natural materials like branches, leaves or grass clippings from adjacent land or the local community. Big logs store water and create habitat for insects and fungi, making them more valuable than wood chips. A thick layer of leaves can be great for beds with primarily root crops or perennials. In beds where seed germination is a priority, I prefer grass clippings and small branches.
Harvest rain water. Water is a magnet that draws life towards it. Harvest as much rainwater as possible to reduce reliance on unsustainable sources of water. If plants can't be grown with locally available water, you might want to think twice about growing them at all.
Plant in islands. Instead of clearing large areas all at once, create small islands that can be managed thoughtfully. Let native plants and weeds regenerate soil everywhere else until you are ready to expand. Work on a practical, human scale.
The methods I use won't give you beds full of vegetables right away, and at first it may feel like nothing is working. This is totally normal! No amount of upfront work will change the fact that it takes time and persistence to learn how to care for plants. The first few years are always the hardest, but as time goes on it will get so much easier and so much more productive. If you trust the soil-building techniques and continue offering your service to the multitude of creatures that reside in your garden, then it is inevitable you will see improvements. I spend a lot of time on this stuff and still kill so many plants. Things are going wrong more often than not! Haha. Be patient.
Below I have laid out some of the defining characteristics of two different management patterns. Both would be considered natural farming but they differ in many important ways.
| Fluid / What Can I Give? | Rigid / What Can I Take? |
| Human management integrating with natural patterns. | Human management interfering with natural patterns. |
| Crop growth and soil regeneration occur simultaneously. | Crop growth and soil regeneration occur separately. |
| Crops selected based on local conditions. | Crops selected based on human preference. |
| Weeds grow alongside vegetables. | Weeds grow during fallow periods. |
| Competitive weeds are mulched in place. | All weeds are composted. |
| Beds are never cleared or reset. | Beds are cleared and reset before every planting. |
| Fluid and natural crop rotation. | Rigid and scheduled crop rotation. |
| Seeds are stored alongside each other in the soil. | Seeds are collected and stored separately. |
| Seeds are dispersed naturally as they appear. | Seeds are sown before expected germination. |
| No control over when crops germinate and grow. | Control over when crops germinate and grow. |
| Polycultures are formed spontaneously. | Polycultures are intentionally organized. |
| Vegetables are harvested as needed. | Vegetables are harvested all at once. |
| Perennials grow alongside annuals. | Perennials grow separate from annuals. |
Most gardens started with a piece of land that supported a host of different species through a diverse array of plants. Are we going to turn it into something that only supports one - ourselves? Or are we going to recognize that we only flourish when the ecosystem as a whole flourishes. Yes, you could feed yourself in that kind of garden, but can you truly be satisfied as a piece disconnected from a whole?
Water is the foundation of life and there are a variety of simple modifications we can make to our land in order to help slow rainwater down and sink it into the soil. This is usually accomplished by either removing soil to create a depression, adding soil to create a mound, or most often a combination of the two. In some cases this may remove or drastically reduce the need for irrigation.
These methods revolve around a few simple and fundamental functions: a) slowing or concentrating water to infiltrate into the soil and raise the surrounding water table while b) simultaneously catching sediment or debris and revegetating so that c) the landscape can hold has much water as possible underground, in the soil, above ground and in a dense canopy of vegetation.
Many methods can be found at Greener Land and most can be done on a small scale with nothing but a shovel, so don't be intimidated! This page also has some nice illustrations. For an in-depth and technical discussion of many of these methods, see the standard reference Rainwater Harvesting for Drylands and Beyond. His blog also has excellent case studies. Below I have summarized some of the most relevant methods.
Terrace | Steep to Low Slope
One of the most labor intensive methods but effective for leveling land with steep slopes. I think it usually makes more sense to adjust your plant selection so they can be planted on contour right into the slope and then use other landscaping methods or plants where the land levels out. There are very casual ways of making small terraces (as seen in the first link) and more effective, long term solutions involving laying down stone in particular patterns. The Incas are believed to have tailored their tuber cultivation to different microclimates within sunken, circular terraces. Talk about advanced agriculture! [Link]
Net & Pan | Steep to Low Slope
This system consists of creating shallow trenches or berms around trees and connecting them with narrow pathways to guide water. This solution is helpful in two scenarios. The first being when trees are already established and any significant digging or soil movement has the potential to damage tree roots close to the surface. The second being when the slope of the land is too steep for swales or other interventions. The term 'net and pan' has also been used to describe negarim and boomerang basins. The key concept shared by these patterns is that water is collected within a single module and any overflow is passed along to another module within the network. However I have described those two methods separately below. [Link]
Bamboo Fence | Steep to Low Slope
Arranged on contour, a primitive bamboo fence will help slow water down, catch debris and can be applied to steep or gently sloped terrain. The bamboo also acts as a channel allowing rainwater to penetrate deeper into the soil. The bamboo should be treated by fire beforehand to prevent rot and then hammered into the ground until it is secure. The smaller the gap between individual stakes the better. Since bamboo can grow quickly and there are suitable species for most environments, it seems smart to develop more water-harvesting methods that utilize it. Stones and logs are not always available but bamboo is strong, lightweight and can be grown on the spot quickly.
Contour Swale | Moderate to Low Slope
A popular water management solution and effective on both very large and very small scales. It consists of digging trenches along the contour of a slope (so that the trench is level as it curves around the landscape) and piling the dug up soil into a mound behind the trench. This helps catch, sink and redirect rainwater along with any sediment or soil it is carrying. Logs (or even stones) can be buried within the mounds Hügelkultur style to lift them higher and improve the soil. Swales can also be dug off countour to direct water in a specific direction if needed. Off-contour swales are also better for steeper slopes where slowing and directing rainwater is more practical than trying to completely stop its momentum. Even if the slope is too steep for a swale, perennials can still be planted on contour to help slow down water and reduce erosion. [Link]
Pond | Moderate to Low Slope
Water attracts life, and ponds collect a huge excess of fertility that can be used to feed the rest of the garden. Not only that, but plant some staple perennial root crops like lotus, wapato and cattail for massive harvests. Ponds are often the foundation of water management systems, allowing long-term water storage and distribution. Higher elevation siting is typically preferred to make use of gravity for irrigation further downslope. Ponds are often used in conjunction with other methods like contour swales and terraces. And as with contour swales or any other interventions that concentrate large amounts of water, thoughtfully designed spillways are essential for long term sustainability and safety. Ponds can be very similar to infiltration or percolation basins. Whereas ponds attempt to hold water in place, percolation basins attempt to sink it into the ground. The soil underneath the water plays a key role in this - heavy rock or clay will often prevent infiltration, whereas looser or sandier soil will aid infiltration and raise the surrounding water table.
Basin | Moderate to Low Slope
Basins are simply large depressions dug out of the soil to capture and infiltrate water into the soil. They are often relatively shallow, especially compared to ponds, and this makes the sloped edges easier to stabilize with stones and/or vegetation. Plants not tolerant of wet feet may be mounded within the basin. Spillways are often connected to other basins. One of the most fundamental and effective patterns of water harvesting.
Boomerang Berm | Moderate to Low Slope
This method consists of creating a semi-circular depression surrounded by a mound. The opening faces uphill, the direction water will enter from, and the berm catches and concentrates water for the plants within. This method is a bit more modular and can be done one at a time, making it both versatile and approachable. The opening of the semi-circle should be roughly on contour.
One Rock Dam | Moderate to Low Slope
Heavy stones are placed in lines on contour or in the path of flowing water, usually with 'anchor' stones buried partially in the ground behind the others.. A simple and effective way of slowing down water and catching sediment or debris. The name of this method indicates that the 'dam' is only one rock high, however if enough sediment builds up another layer of stones can be placed on top. A fundamental and effective water management strategy. Logs can be used in a similar fashion. This method can also be used to create a baffle, which is essentially just a structure that slows and directs the movement of water. Instead of placing material evenly across the bed of a water channel, it can be placed off to one side. This will encourage the water to move towards the opposite side, creating a meandering effect that will help slow and sink water. [Link]
Sheet Flow Spreader/Collecter | Moderate to Low Slope
Stones are shaped into a boomerang to either collect the flow of water or spread it out. If water enters from 'inside' the boomerang, it will be spread out over a greater surface area and be pushed outwards, following the direction of the rock. If water enters from 'outside' the boomerang, it will be collected and concentrated towards the center, again following the direction of the stones. Another simple and effective strategy that is easy to experiment with.
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Negarim | Low Slope
Berms shaped into adjacent diamonds, more appropriate for flatter land. The goal here is to catch all the rain that falls within each rectangle and contain it within the mounds along the perimeter. It is then further concentrated towards a particular corner using one of two methods. The land may be sloped towards this corner directly where perennials are planted, or the land may be flat and a deep hole is dug in the corner (to infiltrate water), next to which perennials are planted. [Link]
Zai Pit | Low Slope
It doesn't get much simpler than digging a small hole and sticking a plant in it! But don't be fooled by the simplicity as this method can be extremely effective at concentrating rainwater. The holes can also be mulched with compost or organic matter to further aid growth. Typically organized into grids but a biointensive planting pattern may be more effective. Waffle gardens with square depressions are applications of the same concept. [Link] [Link]
Buried Ceramic | Low Slope
This method involves burying porous, ceramic containers or pipes in the ground and filling them with water that will slowly be released into the surrounding soil. One of the most efficient watering methods known to man. Plants should be concentrated in the area surrounding the ceramic. The ceramic must be unglazed and porous so water can seep out. It is easiest to use deep ceramic planters, buried just until their tops are level with the soil. The dishes normally placed underneath the pot can instead be placed on top to prevent evaporation. This is an excellent way to stretch water collected from ponds or rain barrels.
As you can see many of these methods are very similar - what's important is to understand the basic principles of slowing down or concentrating water so that it can better penetrate the soil. Even something as simple as organizing stones into a line can be an effective water management method! The simplicity and elegance of primitive methods like this really displays how brilliant our species can be at enriching landscapes. And of course these methods should be used in conjunction with dense planting, mulching and other patterns from our toolkit.
These landscaping methods are usually followed by planting trees, bushes or other perennials in the depressions, mounds or surrounding area depending on the context. Vegetation can amplify the water-harvesting potential of earthworks when the two are designed in tandem. Shaping land this way creates a higher density of biological niches that allow greater plant diversity and more creative polycultures, all while capturing water, improving soil and integrating our crops into the landscape.
This is a rough process for converting areas overtaken by grasses, weeds or other vegetation into usable garden beds. This is not meant to be used for larger areas or fields - these usually need to be cleared and reseeded with the right equipment, or slowly transformed over a much longer period of time.
Even if working in larger areas, this method can be used to create small islands within the existing vegetation that are regularly maintained and expanded. But if grasses or other plants are not removed in any way, different methods are often needed. Slowly transforming the space by transplanting larger or more competitive perennials, especially trees and shrubs, is your best bet.
When organizing my garden I often like to arrange plants and polycultures based on the level of soil disturbance they require. This is not a rule I ever follow strictly but it can help simplify planning and management. Transplanted annuals can be incorporated into any of these.
Low Disturbance: Mainly trees, shrubs and perennial herbs. Creates strong soil and production steadily over time. Think of this like a forest edge. Mulch in place, add any excess mulch although not a priority. Plants may include: hazelnut, plum, seombadi, milkweed, turkish rocket.
Moderate Disturbance: Mainly perennial taproots, rhizomes, bulbs and self-sewing annuals. Harvesting roots improves conditions for annual seed germination. Think of this like a sunny meadow. Mulch in place, add little to no additional mulch. Plants may include: doraji, marshmallow, hooker's onion, carrot, perilla.
High Disturbance: Mainly perennial or annual tuberous roots and annual rhizomes or corms. High production and disturbance benefits from heavy mulching. Gourds and other annuals that benefit from loose soil can be transplanted alongside or at the edges. Think of this like a fertile valley. Mulch in place, add as much additional mulch as possible. Plants may include: taro, achira, sunchoke, potato.
If mulching with multiple materials they should always be layered with the wettest materials on the bottom and the driest materials on top. This helps lock in moisture and encourages more microbial/fungal action. As an example, when I harvest my bed with achira and taro, I lay down the fresh stems and leaves first before covering with fallen tree leaves collected from elsewhere.
The right plant design will serve not only us humans but all of the creatures that live with us. Animals have different dietary requirements than we do and the way they interact with many plants also poses unique challenges. Taking these considerations into account is essential for creating a space we can comfortably share with our non-human brothers and sisters. In the plant list further down I do my best to indicate crops commonly fed to animals, although the information available for many plants is very limited.
Protecting our plants from being killed is the first priority, and there are a few different ways to approach this. Knowing what animals you are protecting against will make life much easier, but in reality it often takes many failed attempts to figure this out.
Fencing: The easiest way to prevent sensitive plants from being eaten, dug up or damaged is to enclose them behind a fence. If the enclosed area is large enough for a deer to jump into, the fence should be roughly 6-7 feet high. If the enclosed area is narrow enough that deer can't or won't jump inside, the fence only need to be high enough to prevent any animals from reaching their head over the fence and eating the plants within. If animals or rodents digging underneath the fence is a concern, use a fence with a finer mesh and bury the bottom of it a few inches in the soil. You can also try planting a shrub deer don't eat (like spicebush) around sensitive plants so they are completely encircled. This living fence will prevent deer from accessing the interior and can be useful in guerilla gardening situations.
Cover: Covering the soil with logs or stones can help prevent pigs, chickens or rodents from digging up plant roots. This is especially useful for tubers or root crops, but may also be useful for any trees, shrubs or plants with shallow root systems. It's as easy as covering the soil surrounding the plants with natural, heavy materials that won't get moved around easily. You can also create a raised grid made of large logs on top of your plants, this will be harder for large animals to step into and can serve as an alternative to a fence. Another useful technique for guerilla gardening.
Height: Plants that are high in the air can't get eaten! This mainly applies to trees and vines, both of which can also provide shelter or shade for animals underneath. Both still need to be protected when young, but once tall enough they will be safe from browsing. Keep in mind that even if a tree is tall enough to avoid or tolerate most browsing, it may still benefit from a fence to deter buck rubbing. This is when male deer rub their bucks against young trees to help speed up the velvet shedding process. Some form of protection may also still be required around the lower trunk of the tree to prevent rodents from chewing off the bark. This can be accomplished by loosely wrapping plastic or metal fencing around the trunk. Ideally the fencing will extend a few inches into the soil and still allow the bark to to receive both sunlight and airflow.
Diversity: A clean layer of mulch and easy-to-spot vegetables are practically an invitation for deer, rabbits or any other animals. Common wisdom dictates that planting herbs with pungent odors alongside your vegetables will help deter browsing. From personal experience I can tell you this doesn't really work in a microcosm. But having a densely planted bed with a variety of herbs, vegetables and weeds all growing on top of one another may help deter browsing to a certain degree. Thorny plants growing around or alongside your crops may also help deter browsing.
Plants that are appetizing to wildlife can be protected using the methods above, but what about all the plants they aren't interested in eating? I can say with certainty it is possible to grow a garden filled with a diverse array of wildlife-resistant food plants, we just have to think outside the box. Having deer in the neighborhood is no longer an excuse!
Timing. Some plants may only be eaten by wildlife during specific phases of growth or specific times of the year. Hosta spp. [hosta] plants are generally only eaten once they begin to leaf out. Because of this the shoots can still be harvested without any problems. Hemerocallis spp. [daylily] plants produce new flowers every day during certain portions of the year. With some prudence I can often harvest the flowers before the deer get them. Some other plants are not preferred browse during the growing season but will often get eaten in times of scarcity (typically during the winter). In my garden this includes some varieties of Brassica oleracea [kale] and Allium cepa [onion]. In these cases I often don't mind sharing as I can still harvest the plants for most of the year.
Taste. Plants with pungent aromas or flavors are often left alone by wildlife. This includes some of my favorite herbs like Agastache rugosa [Korean mint], Pycnanthemum incanum [mountain mint] and many others. It also includes many beloved vegetables! Brassica rapa [turnip] and other mustards are often resistant to browsing due to their off-putting flavor. Perilla frutescens [perilla] is also left alone by deer for this reason (but grow it with care as the plant is toxic to cows, goats and some other animals). Deer often eat potato leaves but Tropaeolum tuberosum [mashua] is avoided due to the hotness of the leaves.
Danger. Many plants contain natural defenses to being eaten. The most obvious examples include those with spines or glochids, like Opuntia humifusa [prickly pear], or those with stinging hairs, like Urtica dioica [stinging nettle]. It also includes plants which contain high levels of irritating calcium oxalate like Colocasia esculenta [taro]. We can prepare these plants to make them safe to eat but animals typically avoid them. And don't forget the many woody, thorny plants like Aralia elata [angelica tree] and Rubus idaeus [raspberry].
These considerations may help prevent some animals or wildlife from eating your crops, but at the end of the day we can only do so much. Deer will often eat plants you would never expect them to. Squirrels can climb your trees and birds can fly just about anywhere, so without covering your entire garden in a net there is no way to protect everything. Designing an ecosystem where animal life is balanced with plant life is the ideal, but that is the work of many humans over many lifetimes. So I just try to be grateful that those who visit my garden are able to appreciate it. We have taken so much from them already, it is the least I can do.
There are also many cases where animals interacting with your plants or landscape is ultimately beneficial. Bunnies may eat the food in my garden, but they also usually leave behind fresh fertilizer that improves the soil. A local chipmunk digs holes in my beds, but these can just be thought of as small water-infiltration basins!
What would it mean for us to come to terms with the knowledge that civilization, our whole mode of development and culture, has been premised and built upon extermination—on a history experienced as "terror without end" (to borrow a phrase from Adorno)? To dwell on such a thought would be to throw into almost unbearable relief the distance between our narratives of inherent human dignity and grace and moral superiority, on the one hand, and the most elemental facts of our actual social existence, on the other.
We congratulate ourselves for our social progress—for democratic governance and state-protected civil and human rights (however notional or incompletely defended)—yet continue to enslave and kill millions of sensitive creatures who in many biological, hence emotional and cognitive particulars resemble us. To truly meditate on such a contradiction is to comprehend our self-understanding to be not merely flawed, but comically delusional.
In the nineteenth century, the animal welfare advocate Edward Maitland warned that our destruction of other animals lead only to our own "debasement and degradation of character" as a species. "For the principles of Humanity cannot be renounced with impunity; but their renunciation, if persisted in, involves inevitably the forfeiture of humanity itself. And to cease through such forfeiture man is to become demon." What else indeed can we call a being but demon who routinely enslaves and kills thousands of millions of other gentle beings, imprisons them in laboratories, electrocutes or poisons or radiates or drowns them?
-John Sanbonmatsu
Not every plant is created equal. Historically, humans have subsisted on a wide variety of plants but typically rely on a much smaller number of species for the bulk of their calories. It is common for indigenous societies to receive more than half of their total calories from a select few plants of central importance (go back far enough and they are almost always perennials too). What I'm searching for is a small selection of plant heavyweights from around the world that can serve as the foundation of a temperate food garden and be multiplied to produce at any scale, whether that's just a small backyard or a large food forest that feeds a community.
This is based on a few different criteria: how easy they are to grow in my climate, propagate and use (even in small spaces); how productive they are; their culinary, nutritional and medicinal qualities; and their ability to grow in tough environments, regenerate soil or contribute to the local ecosystem. I am also considering how useful these plants will be in a hotter, drier future in which people need to grow or forage a significant portion of their own food. Keep in mind this is based on my own experiences in my own unique climate and soil, so your results may vary. That being said, many plants on this list are chosen at least partially because they will tolerate a wide variety of conditions within temperate climates and are easy to grow.
Use these plants to create a strong foundation for your garden with trees, shrubs, herbs, perennials and plants that can propagate themselves or need little maintenance. Then you have a bulletproof skeleton for everything else. Then all the annuals that require more care can be planted into this existing ecosystem. Here they are benefiting from constant soil regeneration and can be grown in any number of niches resulting from nearby perennials. Your tomatoes and basil are instantly surrounded by a variety of plants creating a balanced insect population. Once you've got this foundation you will never need to fertilize again, the soil will give and give, even when you provide nothing in return beyond the mulch it produces. It will serve you until death, this is the life-yearning-multiplying power of nature. Science has taught us to think of a garden as a closed system that gets nutritionally depleted with every harvest. But life does not subscribe to meaningless concepts like this, it multiplies beyond any explanation. A single plot of ordinary land has a thousand generations of harvests stored within it, even without closing the loop of fertility in the form of humanure. We just need to learn how to tap into this potential with the right foundation.
Fruit and nut trees are always the foundation, followed by perennial roots, all of which are low effort and long lived plants packed with energy. Root and seed annuals are another dense source of energy (although usually requiring more maintenance), with vegetables rounding out the list. Self-sowing plants or those whose seed can be dispersed on the spot are always preferred over those that must be direct seeded or transplanted. This list is roughly in order of priority, although that will always depend on specific circumstances and needs. Plants highlighted in gold/silver are, in my opinion, supremely valuable and therefore receive the gold/silver mark.
~Only trees with small forms suitable for the backyard included in this list. Preference for thicket-forming trees. ^Requires standing water or saturated soil.
One of the most important measures of food security is how many pounds of food are in the ground at any given moment. Along with food-producing woody crops, perennial roots are an important indicator of food security simply because they are always there, ready to be harvested at any time, and typically require little maintenance. It is essentially like having a cellar full of food but it's in the ground and the total store of food increases every year as the plants get bigger and multiply. Roots are resistant to many extreme weather events that woody crops are not (fire and wind). They are also much more difficult for empires to tax or control because they are underground and can be harvested as needed. Perennial roots are an invaluable famine crop and have been relied upon by many societies for these reasons. Here in temperate climates it is harder to recognize, but consider the kind of perennial roots a warmer climate can support: achira, taro, yam, cassava, mauka and sweet potato to name only a few. These are all heavy hitters that can keep communities alive. We can often grow these plants here in colder climates as well but they will never provide the same security because it only takes one winter to wipe out the entire crop. This is one reason food security in temperate climates is more difficult, but we too have our own variety of perennial roots that can be utilized to the same advantage. This is why I place such an emphasis on perennial roots and why I think they are one of the keys to resilient agriculture.
The following are experimental group plantings I am testing. I find polycultures most useful for root crops as they often require regular or deep soil disturbance and replanting, whereas many other vegetables and herbs can often easily grow alongside each other in a much more complex and resilient organization.
Large Seeds: Amaranth + Sunflower + Bean [+ Sweet Potato]
Moderate Soil / Part Shade To Sun
Amaranth in an incredible staple seed crop and sunflower is a valuable native. Both create great mulch to lay down at the end of the season. Soybean can fill in gaps closer to the ground and fix nitrogen. Harvest seeds of all three at the end of the season. Amaranth leaves, immature sunflower heads or immature soybean pods can be harvested as needed.
Large Roots: Achira + Taro + Minari [+ Malanga]
Moist & Rich Soil / Part Shade To Sun
This is a prime time polyculture with productive, deer-resistant and water loving root crops. I use it in the best spot in the garden that stays moist year round and gets lots of sun. Achira rhizomes and taro/malanga corms overwintered indoors are transplanted into the minari groundcover which will be great for harvesting in spring and will continue to protect the soil as the other plants come up in summer. Once the weather gets hot, the root crops will start growing very quickly. Produces a lot of mulch that can be applied back to the same spot once harvested. Harvest minari as needed during the growing season. Harvest achira, taro and malanga when they've died back.
Small Roots: Potato + Leek + Chinese Bugleweed [+ Achocha]
Moderate & Loose Soil / Part Shade To Sun
Low-till potato cultivation! The potatoes get started early in spring and grow until July. Chinese bugleweed will grow around them and help the potatoes from being devoured by insects. It is an aggressive grower so I cut it back and mulch with it to keep the soil healthy until the potatoes are done growing. I let it grow a bit taller in summer to shelter the potatoes from heat. After the potatoes die back they wait in the ground until the end of the growing season. Then the Chinese bugelweed is allowed to grow strong and tall. The achocha that was transplanted nearby at the beginning of the growing season will now be gaining speed and can use the bugleweed as a trellis.
At the end of the growing season the entire bed is harvested and reset for the following year. Save a tuber from each potato plant and replant immediately after harvesting to remain dormant in the soil until spring. Harvest Chinese bugelweed tubers at the same time (no need to replant these as they will return on their own) and shoots/terminal growth as needed before flowering. Harvest achocha as it fruits from late summer onward.
Competitive Roots: Sunchoke + Chinese Yam + Silverweed [+ Squash]
Moderate & Loose Soil / Part Shade To Sun
All of these roots are true perennials, strong growers and can be difficult to remove once established. I plant them in a spot that is easy to manage where they can't escape. Sunchoke is the heavy-yielding star of the show and the trellis for the chinese yam. Sunchoke will produce a ton of mulch which should be applied back to the same bed at the end of every growing season. The yams should be planted in a tall raised bed or container next to the sunchokes so the underground tubers can be easily harvested every 2-3 years (see tool section at bottom). Yam aerial tubers can be plucked off easily once they start growing towards the end of summer and leaves can be harvested as needed. Harvest sunchoke tubers at the end of every growing season.
Water Roots: Cattail + Groundnut + Wapato + Lotus
Saturated Soil / Part Shade To Sun
Water-loving natives to be planted in and around a pond or fully saturated soil. These plants often naturally grow alongside each other and each is a productive root crop that will spread like wild. If there is plentiful water, this polyculture is essential. Lotus should be fully submerged in water while wapato and cattail can be be partially submerged or in saturated soil. Groundnut shouldn't be submerged at all but appreciates wet soil and can climb on the cattail. Harvest cattail and lotus as needed. Harvest wapato and groundnut at the end of the growing season.
Competetive Fruit: Elderberry + Passionflower + Raspberry + Wild Strawberry
Moderate Soil / Shade To Sun
Some of the most vigorous native fruits to grow in the backyard. Elderberry grows tall and strong, spreading by suckers and serving as the trellis for the passionflower. Elderberry produces a lot of new growth every year so it's great for pruning and mulching with. It will also provide some shade to protect the others from heat. Passionflower will die back to the ground every year so it is easy to manage. Raspberry fills in the space underneath the elderberry and strawberry covers ground quickly to hold in moisture. Harvest fruits of all four as they ripen.
Regeneratives: Empress Tree + Desert False Indigo + Comfrey
Any Soil / Shade To Sun
These are some of my favorite soil builders. Empress tree makes huge, nitrogen-rich leaves great for mulching and can be coppiced or cut down at the end of each growing season to prevent it from becoming a tree (it will regrow from roots and makes bigger leaves this way). Or if you're pollarding it you can plant some vining vegetables underneath it. False indigo and comfrey both have extensive root systems and strong, dense foliage. Each plant can be cut and used for mulch multiple times a year once mature.
Some of these polycultures are not self-sustaining and should be regularly fed/mulched. Beans, peas or clover can be incorporated for nitrogen. Other support plants can be used for mulch. Plants that draw pollinators may also be helpful to control pests. Think of these polycultures as building blocks that interact with and depend on the diversity of the rest of the garden.
Man, do not pride yourself on your superiority to the animals, for they are without sin, while you, with all your greatness, you defile the earth wherever you appear and leave an ignoble trail behind you -- and that is true, alas, for almost every one of us!
-Fyodor Dostoyevsky
Annual/Perennial: Designations for Z7a, may differ in other climates. Since I only grow plants in one location I usually cannot indicate how hardy they are, only if they survive winters where I am. Hardiness zones also do not take into account many important factors, notably how long low temperatures occur for and how wet the soil is over winter. West coast Z7 and east coast Z7 are two very different climates. For this reason many plants that are supposedly hardy to Z7 may not survive the wet and cold winters of Maryland. Microclimates can also be the reason one plant survives winter while another in the same neighborhood does not.
I typically try to use the most common English name for the plant, although the Latin name is always the most accurate. I also sometimes include the name of the plant in the most relevant language to help with personal research.
Edible: Useful edible parts. Not comprehensive, not a reference, only a starting point. Often there will be more edible portions than indicated, but I may not mention them for any number of reasons. Do not eat anything you are not 100% familiar with. Always be certain of your identification and the parts edible. Consult multiple sources, see resources at the end of page.
I do not always indicate whether a plant can be eaten raw or must be cooked, mainly because it is not always obvious for many of the less common plants. When in doubt, always cook it. Some plants cannot be eaten raw but can be cooked or prepared in some other way, such as drying or fermenting. Processes like fermenting will sometimes render a food safe to eat in the same way that cooking would, but it is not always this simple. Many plants must be prepared in a specific way in order to make them safe to eat. Petasites Japonicus, for example, should always be both blanched and peeled prior to eating. Even if eating a plant in a certain way seems harmless, some plants can quietly build up toxins in your body for decades before manifesting themselves as symptoms of an illness. Tradition is wise, but it rarely explains itself. So just because a plant can be eaten without any noticeable adverse effects does not mean that it is safe to eat regularly over a longer period of time.
The primary goal of my research is to identify plants that can serve as staple food crops, and that is the lens by which I describe the edibility of plants. Even if all signs point to a plant being edible, without tradition or extensive study it is impossible to know if there is some undetectable toxin in the plant which causes some illness only after being regularly consumed over the course of many years, or only in certain populations, etc. Through the lens of foraging this may be an acceptable risk but that is not the context of this guide. Even with a strong history of edibility it is common for new research to indicate the presence of some toxins in food plants (often these plants have a specific, traditional preparation to minimize the harmful effects). And even if a nearly identical species is consumed regularly in another country, how would any of us know what evolutionary adaptations the species in our backyard had to make in order to survive, any of which could have led to potentially toxic compounds within the plant becoming more prevalent? This is not to say we need to be scared of plants beyond reason, only that I personally would never feel comfortable advising someone that a certain plant is safe to eat regularly in meaningful quantities over a long period of time without a sufficient amount of evidence that goes beyond mere deduction from other species in the genus and/or personal experience. When this is lacking I try to mention it in the listing and advise caution. This is why it is important to understand the history of how foods are prepared and eaten. After that, if you want to experiment then the risk is yours to take. But as far as this reference goes, I try to stay conservative.
My system for indicating edibility is a little different than others. Reference books can often be confusing; the shoot may be listed as edible but is the mature leaf or the terminal growth edible as well? If the inflorescence is eaten can I also eat the blooming flower? I clarify all this and more below.
Root/Tuber/Corm/Rhizome: Plants that store energy in roots or tubers usually draw on this energy to produce flowering shoots. Perennial roots are therefore usually harvested after the plant has flowered and been given ample time to store more energy in the roots. This is often at the very beginning or end of the growing season (see Sunchoke). Annual or biennial roots are harvested before flowering as in this case it signifies the end of the plant's life. To maximize harvests we can dig up these roots after it's done most of its growing but before it has a chance to start producing a flowering shoot (see Burdock). But keep in mind that younger root are typically more tender and palatable. After flowering occurs the root will be tough and inedible. However, whether annual or perennial the best practices for harvesting will depend on the specific plant and growing conditions.
Shoot: Shoot refers only to the young growth of the plant when it first emerges from the ground; in other words, the entire aerial portion of the young plant, often in spring. This will consist entirely of immature leaves and petioles if the leaves are produced in advance of the flowering stem (see Hosta) or immature leaves attached to a young stem if they are both produced at the same time (see Milkweed). I only indicate separately that the shoots are edible when the mature leaves are not eaten, otherwise it is assumed the shoot is edible as well. How large the young plant is when harvested depends on the specific plant. This is not the same as terminal or tender new growth. If a plant contains harmful or toxic substances, these may be in low enough quantities when the plant is young but not when it matures. Shoots are valued for their sweet flavor and tender texture, especially when the mature plant may be bitter or tough. They are therefore often the preferred harvest of a plant.
Stem, Leaf & Petiole: If the leaf of a flowering stem is edible then it is usually assumed that the terminal or tender new growth, harvested with some of the new stem, is also edible (see Stinging Nettle),. When leaves are small, young or tightly bunched this can often be the best time to harvest. I only indicate separately that the stem is edible when it constitutes a meaningful portion of the harvest or when it can be eaten even when mature (see Fennel). If leaves are edible but produced in advance of the flowering stem (see Seombadi), then this does not indicate terminal growth or new stem is edible as well. If the leaf is edible then so is the petiole unless a distinction has been made in the individual listing (see Fuki). Some references refer to petioles as leaf stalk but I avoid this to prevent confusion.
Inflorescence & Flower: Flowering tips are indicated as inflorescence. These are eaten when still young, clustered, and tender. I only indicate separately that the flower is edible when the whole inflorescence is not or when the plant does not produce an inflorescence, otherwise it is assumed the flower is edible as well, although this may not always be practical or palatable. There are roughly two stages for harvest: entire young inflorescence while still tender, sometimes with some of the tender stem attached; and the individual flower buds or fully blooming flowers picked off once the flowering stem becomes tougher. Some plants are only eaten during one stage, while some are eaten during both (see Perilla). Once a plant begins to form flowers, the leaves usually become more bitter and tough as energy is being drawn away to support the production of flowers and seeds. Plants with leaves that do not become bitter during flowering are often valued for this trait (see Miner's Lettuce).
Seed: Just because a flower is edible does not mean the seed is, and vice versa.
Some of the plants are marked as calorie crops. This is to indicate they are efficient producers of calories given one growing season. This is entirely root and seed crops. It does not include many other useful and potential staple crops that take longer to grow or are not as efficient.
The best way to know how to eat a plant is to do research, grow/forage it and become familiar with it. Even with references, the actual details of how it's harvested and eaten can require hands on interaction. And keep in mind that many online references are just summarizing (often poorly or incorrectly) physical reference books that provide more detail. If a plant is uncommon, then especially thorough research is required. Typically we are looking to answer a few basic questions. Is there an extensive history of humans eating this part of the plant? If so, how is it prepared and in what quantity is it eaten? Are there any indications that this plant may contain harmful or toxic substances? The more information you have, the better.
Always remember the golden rule: if it's not regularly eaten, don't eat it regularly.
Just because one species in a genus is edible does not mean that other species are. And just because one part of the plant is edible does not mean that others parts are. These kinds of assumptions will put you in the hospital or in the ground. There are even cases (as with some members of the Calystegia genus) where one variety of a species is edible but another variety within the very same species is not. Therefore we must be thoughtful about what exactly we are eating and recognize that academic taxonomy has its limits. Even if an online resource says something is edible (including this one), you must do your own research!
Propagation: Useful methods of propagation. Usually seed, stem cutting, or rhizome/tuber/root division. Seeds that prefer cold stratification or sunlight to germinate are often noted as such. Annuals or biennials that I have had success naturalizing in the garden are marked as self-sowing. This marker is not applied to any perennials. Plants marked as spreading aggressively are best planted in containers or areas surrounded by lawn/concrete unless you want to spend years pulling them up (all from personal experience).
Conditions: Rough guidelines for minimum sun requirements: Sun (≈65-100%) → Part Shade (≈35-65%) → Shade (≈0-35%). Estimating sun is difficult and many plants will thrive in sun but can scrape by with a good deal of shade so take this with a grain of salt. Most of the time, if a plant prefers shade, it will also prefer rich and moist soil. And keep in mind that just because a plants prefers sun doesn't mean it can handle the heat summer usually brings. This is often true for plants that grow naturally in cooler climates, such as in high altitudes or in coastal areas. Some plants have markers that indicate they grow easily, these are great plants to start with.
Wildlife: Impact of wildlife and insects on plant. We have lots of deer as well as chipmunks, rabbits and birds that live nearby. I try to grow enough food for everyone, but I can't let them eat everything! I have some fenced areas for sensitive plants I don't want being bothered. I try to be as hands-off as possible and rarely remove insects from plants or interfere with their growth.
Status: The status listed under each plant is mostly for my personal reference to know what is and is not currently in the garden and what I need more of. Established only indicates at least one species within the genus is currently in the garden, not necessarily the main species of the listing. None with a yellow triangle means I'm working on adding it and none with a red circle means I have most likely given up on it.
Notes: Everything else. Observations about growth habits, useful varieties, hardiness, harvesting, interactions with other plants and more. Plants with photos were grown in Maryland, roughly zone 7a. You may notice some of the plants in my photos don't look perfectly healthy - this is okay. If it is a perennial, as long as it has a healthy root system it will grow just fine after being planted and given a few seasons to adjust.
Edible: Leaf, flower.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Many edible and medicinal species within this genus, generally known as hyssops. Beautiful flowers appreciated by pollinators, especially some form of moth in my garden. Easily grown and not picky about soil or sun. I like this particular species for its wonderful aroma, it makes a delicious tea and garnish alike. Unfortunately this species does not overwinter well and instead often grows more like an annual in my climate. I am looking into species or varieties that will be true perennials in this climate. A. foeniculum is common as well.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: A. rugosa.
Edible: Stem, leaf, seed.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Fragrant herb famous for pickling but with a variety of other uses. Often considered self-seeding but in my experience it only does this to a limited extent. I wish it would become weedy but it never does. Bolts easily, especially in my beds with no irrigation. Despite all this it does have some wonderful qualities in the garden, aside from the amazing flavor. It has such a slim profile that it can grow in between other plants without creating any shade. This makes it an excellent choice for easily increasing diversity in a garden bed. For a perennial alternative, see fennel.
Photos: A. graveolens.
Edible: Rhizome.
Propagation: Division, seed. Cold stratify. May be difficult from seed.
Conditions: Shade. Woodland. Shelter from heat.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A beautiful woodland herb occasionally used by native Americans. Rhizomes are used as a garnish in limited quantities. There are reports of toxicity, so never eat the leaves and always eat in moderation. Despite the limited use it makes a gorgeous ground cover for shade. Requires shelter from direct sun and heat, especially while getting established the first year. After this it is considerably more tolerant. An understory plant that can grow alongside ramps. Slow to spread. A. europaeum is also used the same way.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: A. canadense.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A houseplant but worth the extra effort for it's impossibly strong scent. So potent you could use a single leaf as a natural perfume just by rubbing it on your skin or hair. Also used as an insect repellent. Aroma is intense but I really enjoy it, great as a spice as well. Grows well indoors for me under my lights.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Leaf, flower.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Many edible plants in different genera are referred to as a kind of rocket or cress. Most are weedy and eaten as a garnish in limited quantity due to the hotness of the leaves. It grew alright the first year but seems to have disappeared since then. A perennial alternative to arugula.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Leaf, flower.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: I have limited experience with this plant but it has never impressed me. Leaves have limited use due to their hotness and bolts very easily. Seed production was also lacking for the variety I grew.
Photos: E. vesicaria.
Edible: Stem, leaf, seed.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. DROUGHT TOLERANT
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: The standard variety is used primarily as a perennial herb, but there are bulbing varieties used as annual vegetables. The bulbing varieties will not live as perennials the same way the standard variety does. I had a bronze variety which is often described as an ornamental but tastes wonderful as well. It died over winter, I imagine the soil was too wet. Becomes quite big and bushy when mature. Very ornamental.
Photos: F. vulgare.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed, stem.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: I tend to think of this herb as similar to rosemary - both have compact growth habit, both prefer sun and well-draining soil, both have similar leaves. But lavender is much easier to grow in my experience. It doesn't need as much sun, will tolerate wetter soils and is hardier. Plus is it just an absolutely gorgeous plant with an amazing aroma. I use this for tea. A gardener at a botanic garden once explained that many species of lavender are hard to propagate but french lavender and the varieties in the trade are those that are easy to propagate by stem rooting. L. latifolia is used in the same way.
Photos: Lavandula spp.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed, stem.
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Once known as a medicinal panacea, now often ignored. Very easily grown and forms large clumps quickly. Fantastic aroma and wonderful as a tea. I cut this back and mulch with it occasionally. Good space filler.
Photos: M. officinalis.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Division, stem, seed. SPREADS AGGRESSIVELY
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Most herbs in the mint family get a bad reputation because of this plant. But in my experience only those in this genus pose any concern, just because of how quickly they spread by rhizome and how hard they can be to get rid of. For species that do not play well with others, I prefer planting them in shade or in spots with tough soil (even compacted lawn). This way they don't get in the way and their growth is slowed down a bit. Plus they are not taking space away from plants that need better conditions. M. requienii, corsican mint, is a notable species within this genus as well. Not only edible but forms a beautiful, diminutive groundcover. Grows slowly at first and is very small so it needs to be managed while getting established. Has been difficult to cultivate.
Photos: M. spicata.
Edible: Leaf, flower.
Propagation: Seed, stem.
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant. POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Very easily grown like others in the mint family. They are a bit picky about being divided, make sure to actually dig the roots out instead of just pulling it up like you might do with mountain mint. Beautiful flowers that pollinators enjoy. I really enjoy this plant - a beneficial native, grows easily and quickly, not selective about soil or sun, spread it all around the garden! A fundamental native herb. Others like M. citriodora.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: M. fisulosa.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. Prefers warm soil to germinate.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: This species is the standard and quite sweet. I personally prefer O. tenuiflorum, sacred basil. One whiff of this plant and you are transported to another dimension, no wonder it is sacred! Even after flowering it continues growing for the rest of the season and the leaves still taste great. Some others. All prefer heat and sun, only thriving once the weather starts to warm up in the summer. When transplanted they do very well but I have never found any seedlings coming up from dispersed seed.
Photos: Ocimum spp.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed, stem. GROUNDCOVER
Conditions: Shade to sun. DROUGHT TOLERANT
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: One of my favorite herbs to have in the garden. Versatile in the kitchen and easily grown in sun. Great for filling in space between bigger perennials but not competitive enough. The Greek variety is much better for culinary use and is the one to get if you want the classic flavor.
Photos: O. vulgare.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: I absolutely love having parsley in the garden. It is one of the easiest non-perennial herbs I grow. Tastes wonderful and can be eaten in quantity like a vegetable. Tolerant of dry soil and cold hardy. Grows in between and around other crops well because it has such long petioles. No problems with insects or wildlife. The curled varieties taste much better in my experience. Good potential for naturalizing in my climate.
Suggested Varieties: 'Hungarian Landrace' from Wild Garden Seed.
Photos: P. crispum.
Edible: Leaf, flower.
Propagation: Division, seed, stem.
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant. POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: One of my favorite herbs although rarely gets the attention it deserves! Think of this genus as the mintiest form of mint there is. Super refreshing and a wonderful breath freshener. After tasting this any other mint will just taste mild in comparison. Because of its potency it makes a great tea fresh off the plant. Other mints are better dried in order to concentrate the flavor, but this does not need that at all. The flowers can also be used fresh for a beautiful and strong tea. Like bee balm, this is a native herb I like to have all around the garden, but this one seems much more valuable to insects and provides flowers for longer. It is probably the single most valuable herb one can grow around here. P virginianum is frequent as well.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: P. incanum. ↴
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Stem, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. DROUGHT TOLERANT
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Except for clary sage.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: I love rosemary both for its taste and compact growth habit. I find it quite picky however, needing good sun and well-draining soil. In my climate rosemary seems to be just barely hardy enough - plants may lose all their leaves over winter and possibly be severely damaged from the cold. They can still come back to life come spring but you'll have better luck with the plant if it is in a sheltered spot that still gets plenty of sun. All mine have died so far. There is also a creeping variety. Now in the same genus as all the sages but definitely an outlier from them.
Common garden sage, S. officinalis, is a standard and suitably cold hardy in my region. I've tried a few other sages but none have that classic sage taste. Like rosemary it needs full sun and dry or well-draining soil. Mine have died, probably from being too wet. Clary sage, S. sclarea, is a biennial with big leaves and a big, beautiful inflorescence. The flowers are divine. Wild sage, S. verbanica, forms a small rosette and is one of the least palatable species. It is a nice groundcover with beautiful flowers though.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: S. officinalis. S. sclarea. S. rosmarinus. S. verbanica.
Edible: Root, leaf, seed.
Propagation: Seed. SELF-SOWS
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: An herb seldom found in cultivation. Germination is so good that this plant can become very weedy very quickly. Plants will overwinter easily, with all their leaves still green, and go on to produce small but dense mounds of foliage. They are vigorous growers that cover the surrounding soil well and suppress germinating seeds or weeds. These qualities may be useful in some areas but an annoyance in others. The plant in flower is also something to behold, growing over five feet high with dozens of delicate stems and even more delicate flowers. Seeds fall very easily once they mature. I would probably rather have this in an area I am rehabilitating or a larger/wilder bed just because of the way it flowers and how well it reseeds. Leaves are a condiment and the root can be eaten as a vegetable.
I am interested in this plant because it is an edible taproot that can self-sow so prolifically, which is valuable. The main reference I'm seeing for the root being eaten is Plants for Human Consumption which provides no other information. I therefore wouldn't eat it raw in any significant quantity and would cook it first. Even when cooked, I am unsure if it can be eaten regularly as I can't find any sources that discuss its historical use.
Photos: S. amomum.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed, stem. GROUNDCOVER
Conditions: Part shade to sun. DROUGHT TOLERANT
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Thyme is another wonderful and versatile herb, this species forms a matting groundcover but many others have a growth habit similar to oregano. I find the groundcover species like this one a bit harder to incorporate into the garden as they are small and easily overtaken. So it's important to find the right spot for them where competition will be lowered or easily managed. Edges or nooks in between rocks work well to utilize their creeping characteristic. Or perhaps next to a wall it can hang off of. Full sun and well-draining soil but adaptable. Many references indicate the creeping varieties are not eaten, but this is absolutely false. They taste amazing! T. vulgaris is the standard for culinary use. Many others.
Photos: T. serpyllum.
Edible: Stem, leaf, seed.
Propagation: Seed. Cold stratify. Prefers sunlight to germinate. May grow well in meadows.
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A biennial or triennial. Many species like this one have edible shoots and leaves that can be cooked as a vegetable. A. atropurpurea and A. lucida also have edible leaves. A. keiskei or ashitaba is perhaps the most prized species in the genus, it can be eaten the same way but exudes a yellow sap from the stems and is a longevity medicinal. There is supposedly a variety 'Mikura' that is more palatable. An important wild food from Japan. Possibly hardy in my area but a small one I had growing died over winter. Will hopefully continue experimenting with it if I can get these darn seeds to germinate! A. gigas and A. acutiloba are also eaten for their leaves, the latter being used for its medicinal root as well.
A. japonica/kiusiana is a lesser known species, Plants For Human Consumption and this paper only mention the seeds as being eaten. I have seen some casual references to it being foraged and eaten, and Chinese Materia Medica indicates a part of it is eaten as a vegetable. Here is the full entry:
This is given in the Pentsao under the article on Rhus semialata and is said to come from a women's kingdom located to the east of the country of Fulin, is fragrant, saline, and is eaten as a vegetable. Its leaves are said to resemble those of Seseli libanotis.
It is sometimes eaten by locals, both the cooked root and leaves, but to what extent is unclear. Useful Plants Of Japan, Described And Illustrated writes that this species is actually "very poisonous". This is mentioned under the entry for ashitaba, warning foragers not to mistake the two. This seems to be a reputable source and is quite clear on the matter. Eating Wild Japan writes that it is not poisonous but not typically eaten. A Japanese reference book I have also says it is not eaten. Another says only the roots are of any value.
Of course, there is no obvious resolution. All or some of the plant may have a compound that makes it unsafe for regular consumption. Certain methods of preparation may make it safer for eating (like fuki or ferns). It is also possible that some forms are safer than others, as there are at least a few different varieties. Ultimately, I would avoid it unless you are already very familiar with it. And I certainly would not make it a regular part of my diet. Many others in this genus with different edible or medicinal properties.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: Angelica spp.
Edible: Shoot, terminal growth.
Propagation: Division, seed. Cold stratify.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: One of the famous mountain vegetables of Japan! An excellent perennial vegetable for its productivity and biomass generation. Most English references indicate the shoot is eaten, often blanched/covered. This is the most highly valued harvest, but a small one for a plant so big. In fact, the largest crop from this plant is the tender new growth, the young stems and leaves. These are available for a much longer portion of the year and can be produced in quantity on older specimens. Will tolerate shade but seems to prefer full sun. Dies back every winter, leaving behind dead stems wonderful for mulch.
For some reason the only variety available from most nurseries here in the west is 'Sun King', which has a yellower tint to it but I beleive can be eaten the same way. If you are looking for a variety closer to the .wild form, you may have to grow it from seed. A. racemosa has different edible properties and is rarely cultivated for this purpose.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: A. cordata.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed, stem, division. SPREADS AGGRESSIVELY
Conditions: Shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: I have become quite infatuated with this plant. Although likely to be considered a weed in most gardens, this particular species is a traditional Korean vegetable. The shoots can be eaten like any other vegetable, but it is most famous as a flavoring ingredient in rice cakes and occasionally in soup. Many references indicate the plant is very bitter. I have eaten all sorts of very bitter plants and this is not one of them. Shoots in spring are palatable even when raw. These could easily be blanched and eaten with rice. I suspect the bitterness is a result of eating the plant too late in the growing season as is the case with many references.
The plant grows very easily in most conditions and forms clump about 5 feet high. And what I really love about this plant is that the thick stems make for a wonderful mulch. In my mind this is a great chop and drop plant considering how quickly it grows. I have a few around the garden and use them this way regularly. This plant spreads very quickly once established (species in this genus are often considered invasive) so cut it back often and consider keeping it in a separate space where it can be easily managed. I haven't had any problems with them spreading too much as long as I remember to cut them back every so often and pull up any strays. Or plant them somewhere they can be mowed over should the need arise.
Some plants in this genus are allelopathic and are said to inhibit the growth of nearby plants. I have not personally observed this with any of the species I grow but it may still be useful to keep in mind. A. vulgaris, common mugwort, is edible in the same way along with some others. Said to be a lucid dreaming aid as well.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: Artemisia spp.
Edible: Leaf, inflorescence, seedpod.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer sensitive. POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: One of the most popular native, wild edibles and a staple for pollinators. Shoots are the most common harvest but young leaves or growing tips are also edible. Flower heads or immature seedpods also eaten. Expands into large patches but mostly well-behaved. This would be on my list for most essential native vegetables. Excellent potential for growing some vines on a patch of this, throw in a ground cover and you've got a real nice polyculture.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: A. syriaca.
Edible: Shoot.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: A classic perennial vegetable of home gardens. Grown from seed they will take a few years before the shoots are big enough to harvest. Young plants are easily overtaken when surrounded by competition. A. schoberioides is edible in the same way, but with smaller shoots.
Photos: A. officinalis.
Edible: Root, shoot, inflorescence.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A historic Roman vegetable, grown primarily for its roots and shoots but may be valued for the flowers as well. There is evidence to suggest the presence of toxins within the roots and possibly the entire plant. Consume in moderation and always cook thoroughly, see here for more. I can't say for sure how safe any part of this plant is or preciesely what methods are needed to render it safe. Needs dry soil and full sun in my experience, they don't survive very long in my garden. Not sure if it's the climate or something else. Leaves stay up over winter. Seed may prefer cold stratification but some will germinate without this. Excellent potential as a perennial root crop.
Photos: A. lutea.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive, preferred
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: One of many edible asters and a traditional Korean vegetable. Prefers full sun but will do fine in part shade. Young leaves or tender new growth is eaten. A good choice for a wild leafy green to incorporate into the food forest. All mine have died, possibly from deer or bunnies eating them. A. tataricus has a medicinal root and is very occasionally eaten for its shoot in spring, although the plant quickly becomes very tough. Pollinators love it though.
Photos: A. scaber. A. tataricus.
Edible: Leaf, inflorescence.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: A perennial beet relative grown for its edible leaves. The inflorescence is also edible when young and tender. Root is said to be edible but not normally eaten. Wouldn't recommend eating the root regularly without more information. When in sun the plant does very well with a deep taproot after just a few months. Low growing so ensure it is not being shaded out by other plants. The seeds I grew out had noticeable differences, mostly in leaf shape and size, so this vegetable should offer a good opportunity for selection and breeding. Died out from my garden, maybe from the winter.
Photos: B. vulgaris maritama.
Edible: Leaf, flower.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: I think this plant has excellent potential as an edible soil regenerator and excellent for pollinators as well. No luck getting it to self-sow but not difficult to grow from seed and transplant. I don't bother with that though.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Leaf, inflorescence.
Propagation: Stem, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Eaten in winter. Bunny sensitive. Leaves fed to many animals, may be mildly toxic.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: B. oleracea consists of many different plants including broccoli, cabbage, kale and cauliflower. Of these I tend to focus on kale because this particular variety of kale is known to have some non-flowering or short lived perennial forms. Most kale will set seed after their first winter, but some forms will either set seed after 2-3 years of growth or never/rarely set seed at all. Those that don't set seed are usually propagated by stem cutting. Stem cuttings can be placed in moist soil to root and clone the original plant. Out of many plants grown only one has proven to be hardy enough and lived more than 2 years, but later died without producing any seed. If you find a form you like it's only a matter of taking some cuttings and planting it all around the garden.
I am particularly interested in the forms that can live for a few years before setting seed. This not only ensures genetic diversity but also opens up the possibility of harvesting the inflorescence and perhaps breeding some form of a short-lived perennial kale/broccoli vegetable. I also wonder about the potential for a kale that can produce offshoots when flowering so it can perennialize even if the individual plants aren't perennial.
Some plants are cold hardy but many are not. Like others in this genus it is very susceptible to insects. I also have trouble with mildew when it grows in shadier or wetter spots.
Suggested Varieties: 'Homesteader's Kaleidoscopic Perennial Kale Grex' from Experimental Farm Network.
Photos: B. oleracea. ↴
Edible: Stem, leaf, inflorescence.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: B. rapa consists of many different plants including turnips, rapini and bok choy. Within this species I tend to focus on turnips (see that listing in the roots section), but I do grow some other varieties just for the leaves.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Leaf, inflorescence.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: B. juncea consists of many different plants including mizuna and brown mustard, but the varieties aren't as distinct as some other Brassica species. I particularly like curled-leaf mustard as it is incredibly cold hardy and grows through snow just fine. The only drawback is how pungent this variety is, so it is probably better cooked if eating in any quantity.
Photos: B. Juncea
Edible: Stem, leaf, inflorescence.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: I like to think of this plant as the best perennial mustard (maybe aside from sea kale). The inflorescence can be eaten alone or harvested with some of the new stem and leaves like rapini. In my climate it actually prefers a spot sheltered from summer heat that stays moist but well drained, similar to what other mustards prefer. Multiple specimens in different siting died. Beautiful yellow flowers that some insects enjoy. I was surprised to see the deer eating this, it is unfortunately not deer resistant (it's not a favorite but does get eaten in my garden after all the good stuff is gone).
Photos: B. orientalis.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: I appreciate this plant not only for the unique hot peppers it creates (they are extremely hot), but also because it is one of the hardier, true perennial species. There are a few different varieties available, mostly differentiated by color (usually red or orange) and origin (usually Peru or Ecuador).
If grown in a warmer climate it will become like a small pepper tree. The main stem even gets woody after just one growing season. Unfortunately it will not survive outdoors in my climate, but there is potential to grow it in a greenhouse or to bring it indoors over winter. If growing as a perennial the yields are better as the plant gets older. If growing as an annual, start it indoors as early as possible so the fruits have enough time to ripen before frost. They take their time with this so you have to be prepared. The fruits are relatively large for hot peppers and the seeds are black, unlike other peppers.
C. flexuosum is another species that fascinates me, mostly because it is the hardiest species within the genus. The fruits are tiny. Supposedly it will survive outdoors in my climate but the seeds are difficult to germinate and I haven't had much luck. I have read they do better with some special treatment before germination.
Photos: C. pubescen. C. annum.
Edible: Leaf, inflorescence, seed.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. May grow well in meadows.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Once a common vegetable but now fallen out of favor, and for no good reason! It's hard to imagine a better vegetable. Leaves that make the perfect perennial spinach substitute. Inflorescence that make for a perennial broccoli substitute (although many references ignore this). Even the young, unfurled flowering shoots can be peeled and eaten like asparagus. The seeds can be eaten too - this could be an interesting experiment in perennial seed cultivation given enough plants. Many ways to prepare this vegetable. Planted multiple times but none have lived very long. Seems to dislike heat. Will continue experimenting. Also edible is its weedy brother, C. album. This species is also useful, can self-sow and grows fairly well in my climate. Leaves are excellent and very nutritious.
Photos: C. bonus-henricus.
Edible: Bulb, stem, leaf, inflorescence.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Hands down one of the best salad crop out there. Juicy succulent leaves that taste just as good even after flowering. The flowers can be eaten as well and this is my preferred way of serving as they are beautiful in flower. A small plant that prefers a moist and sunny spot. I don't seem to have much luck with it. C. sibirica is a perennial and can also be eaten the same way, although this species prefers more shade. Not sure if it is actually hardy here.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Root, leaf, inflorescence.
Propagation: Division, seed. May be difficult from seed.
Conditions: Sun to part shade.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: The famous perennial kale that grows along the ocean in sandy and saline conditions. Best harvest is young shoots as leaves can get quite tough once larger, it is sometimes blanched for this reason. Seeds have a cork-like shell around them that should be removed before planting, and even then they do not germinate or grow very easily. Purchasing a live plant/root may be helpful for this reason.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: A carefree perennial from Japan, sometimes called Japanese parsley for its likeness to the plant. However if you're expecting it to taste like parsley you'll be disappointed. It's definitely tougher and mustier. Still, I imagine it has a lot of potential in the kitchen. What I love about this plant is how easy it is to grow, pretty much any conditions are fine and since it will tolerate a good amount of shade this is where I like to plant it. A really solid plant to put everywhere. C. canadensis is the American species and can be eaten the same way. A very common native species in my area and an equally valuable alternative.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: C. japonica.
Edible: Leaf, flower, fruit, seed.
Propagation: Seed. CLIMBING
Conditions: Sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive. Usually only young growth eaten. Fruit fed to many animals.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Squash has been a thorn in my side for a while. They are an important plant and gourds are a staple vegetable stretching back to the beginnings of domesticated plants. They produce a lot of food and winter squash stores very well. But I have so far not found any way around the fact that they need rich and loose cultivated soil, especially if my goal is zero irrigation. And they usually take up a lot of space. Right now I'm trying to find any varieties or species that can handle poor soil and little irrigation. I also want to find some elegant way to grow them densely alongside other vegetables because I have so little space in the garden.
Photos: C. maxima.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed. CLIMBING
Conditions: Sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant? POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: An ancient Andean cucumber relative with small green fruits. Once established it grows fairly quickly, using very long tendrils to climb and clamber around. I really love how good this plant is at attaching itself to things to climb. Tenacious growth and abundant fruit set in fall, fruits late but I'm sure this can be improved. Think of this as a cucumber that hasn't been overbred. Thick skin and big seeds with relatively little flesh, becoming hollow as it matures. The taste is still good, very cucumber-like but without all the soft watery flesh. I typically eat the small ones fresh off the vine while they are still juicy and tender. I imagine this is much more nutritional than a modern cucumber because the skin and the seeds make up most of what you are eating, and both of those are typically much more valuable than flesh. Older fruits are often cooked, can be stuffed, treat them like green peppers. This is one of the best gourds in my opinion because it is very easy to grow, heat tolerant and very productive. A single plant with minimal irrigation yields around 10lb of fruit in my garden. Small insects love the flowers in late summer. Some varieties have soft spines and some do not.
🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: C. pedata. ↴
Edible: Leaf, flower bud.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant? POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: None. 🔴
Notes: Cardoon is exactly the same species as artichoke, only it has been bred for the leaves as opposed to the flower head. But cardoon is hardier and therefore the only potentially perennial option in colder climates. The flower head and bracts of cardoon can still be eaten but they are not as fleshy and so offer a less worthwhile harvest. The main harvest from cardoon is the thick petioles and midribs.
Theoretically, cardoon should be an obvious selection for any garden where it will grow as a perennial. The plant does not need great soil and can grow in sun or part shade. It effectively blocks out nearby competition with its large leaves and creates a significant amount of biomass for mulching. Mature plants produce a sizeable harvest as well. The only catch is that the stalks are unpalatable straight off the plant. This is why they are usually blanched by wrapping some sort of paper or cloth around the leaves. And even then they should be peeled, chopped and thoroughly boiled. So a wonderful vegetable to grow but may be a hassle to prepare.
Some varieties of cardoon have spines, but I would avoid these and instead opt for those without. The flowers are stunning and appreciated by pollinators. I grew out a few plants of the Gobbo di Nizza variety but none survived winter. I will continue trialing other varieties, but it may be too cold and wet here.
Photos: C. cardunculus.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed. Germination may be poor.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. May grow well in meadows.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Shoots fed to pigs.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Similar to angelica but a true perennial that will flower and continue growing, more like lovage in that regard. Seed does not need cold stratification and is easy to grow. Older specimens produce a good volume of shoots which make for a high quality vegetable. Shoots can be eaten at any maturity, a bit tough when larger, but no part of the flowering stem is eaten.
Prefers sun but will do fine in part shade. Easy to grow. Comes up well before the last frost and starts growing very early in the season. Sometimes referred to as Korean celery, and a good perennial substitute for celery. Not only does it have all these wonderful qualities, but it is completely deer resistant as well! Easily one of my favorite vegetables to grow. Very tasty, should be in every garden. I cannot say enough good things about this plant.
Photos: D. takesimana.
Edible: Stem, leaf, flower.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Shoots or young stems and leaves are eaten. The flower is edible but typically not eaten. This plant is often avoided or cultivated with care as it can spread by seed rapidly in certain conditions. Flowers start to form very early, and these flowers quickly turn to thousands of seeds. I would avoid planting it in the garden beds and instead put it somewhere out of the way. That being said, it has not reseeded in my garden.
Photos: G. parviflora.
Edible: Leaf, flower.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant?
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Common in Japan but rarely cultivated here in the west. And for shame! A unique vegetable, great taste and beautiful flowers. It is sometimes grown as a fall crop. Useful Plants Of Japan, Described And Illustrated indicates this plant was sown in the fall and overwintered. In my climate it does not overwinter. Seed germination is good when tossed over disturbed soil but never self-sows and is too picky to last long in my garden.
There are two main types available - one with smaller, serrated leaves and another with larger, more tender leaves. When eaten as a vegetable it is cooked. A Dictionary Of Japanese Food writes that the raw leaves and small flowers are used as a garnish.
C. nankingense is occasionally considered a cultivar of C. indicum but Food Plants Of China lists it as a separate species. A perennial primarily cultivated for its shoots which are eaten as a vegetable. C. morifolium is another perennial alternative although more fragrant and typically used medicinally. Do not eat random varieties of this species - stick to those cultivated for this purpose. Strictly Medicinal has standard varieties. There is also a variety 'Abokyu' cultivated in Japan for its large edible flowers but not available here. Many (all?) of the medicinal varieties are propagated only through division as they no longer produce viable seed, therefore purchasing a live plant will be necessary.
C. parthenium is feverfew, a medicinal herb renowned for its ability to treat migraines. Once established it will pop up everywhere. Very fragrant. An excellent plant as it creates lots of seed and I like to use it to help new beds get going. A short lived perennial. Many others, although the few that can be eaten as vegetables as opposed to just garnishes/teas stand out as excellent crops because of how easily this genus grows.
Photos: C. coronaria. C. parthenium.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed. CLIMBING
Conditions: Shade to part shade. Woodland.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: This plant has such an incredible potential to be incorporated into forest gardens as one of the best perennial, cold hardy, vining plants with edible leaves. On top of that it is also a renowned medicinal and adaptogen! Most references actually only mention the medicinal qualities and skip over the fact that the leaves can be cooked and eaten as a vegetable as well. Leaves taste very sweet. The plant prefers shade and dies back to its roots every year, making it easy to incorporate into the understory and easy to manage once established.
Older specimens still have the potential to smother shrubs so this should be taken into account. I have one planted right below an old ornamental bush I don't care about and it seems very happy. Vines can be a difficult element to incorporate into food forests but this one is fairly straightforward. Viable seed is only produced when a male and female plant are present. The appearance is somewhat similar to Virginia creeper but jiaogulan has visible leaf petioles and leaf hears, as well as a different leaflet arrangement.
Most references indicate this plant is only hardy to about Z7. I can confirm it overwinters in my climate without any special protection. There may be hardier forms as well.
Photos: G. pentaphyllum.
Edible: Shoot, flower.
Propagation: Division
Conditions: Shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer sensitive. Mostly eat flowers.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: This plant is sort of a poster child for permaculture as it's a tasty perennial vegetable, incredibly easy to grow, and you may already have it in your backyard. Cultivated as a vegetable in China. The flowers are some of the best out there being sweet and delicious.
The flowers can be eaten as buds or fully opened. They are cooked, dried, pickled or sometimes eaten raw (but to be safe I recommend against eating them raw in any meaningful quantity). The shoots are also eaten as a vegetable, usually cooked, but the leaves quickly get tough if left to grow. The roots are less commonly eaten. Most online resources indicate any species is fine to eat, whether its the flowers, shoots or roots. But this is horrible information as not every species has a recorded history of being eaten, and those that do often do not include all three parts of the plant.
It seems the roots in particular are seldom or never eaten depending on the species. Edible Wild Plants Of Vietnam indicates at least one species used for edible flowers has mildly toxic roots. Granted this book isn't the most reliable but it's worth noting. The Encyclopedia Of Edible Plants Of North America mentions the roots of some species are eaten but Food Plants Of China makes no mention of it for any of the species it lists. Both Plants For Human Consumption and Cornucopia only list some of the species as having an edible root. Many are listed as being eaten only for the shoots and flowers. Let us remember one of our basic principles - just because one species in a genus is edible in a certain way does not mean others are! Forage, Harvest, Feast has a good write up about the plant.
My recommendation is to stick to the species with a history of being eaten and not to bother with the roots. Along with this yellow flowering species eaten in Japan, this includes H. fulva (common orange ditch lily) and H. lilioasphodelus/H. flava (shorter plant with sweet-scented, yellow flowers). There are many others. Avoid all cultivars and only eat species type. Cook or prepare everything to be on the safe side.
Daylilies will grow in most soils and do fine in fairly deep shade. The common orange ditch lily is an aggressive spreader so put it in a spot that's easy to manage. Other species grow slower and are easily managed. Overall, they are an excellent perennial vegetable very well suited for food forest projects.
Photos: Hemerocallis spp.
Edible: Shoot, petiole.
Propagation: Division.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive, preferred. Bunny sensitive, preferred.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: The situation for hostas is similar to that of daylilies - there is an extensive history of some species being eaten, and the rest are often assumed to be just as safe. I would suggest sticking with the well-documented species or doing your own research for the specific species you are interested in. This species is a standard in Japan and the normal recommendation.
It is primarily the shoots, young leaves and petioles that are eaten. Most English sources do not mention the petioles but they appear in Japanese reference books more frequently. They are a good way to extend the harvest of the plant once the leaves become too big and tough. The flowers are sometimes a very minor crop as well, however Food Plants Of China indicates the flowers of H. plantaginea require cooking to detoxify them. Therefore do not assume they are safe raw for any species without evidence to the contrary. I have seen an absurd amount of online sources claiming the flowers of all species are edible raw but I have never seen any valid reference that corroborates this.
The fact that hostas can tolerate full sun or deep shade makes them very fun to have in the garden. I can have other plants growing right next to them and they don't mind the shade it creates at all. They can act as a sort of groundcover in that way and still provide a high quality vegetable.
Will tolerate most conditions as long as the soil is not overly dry. Useful for deep shade where edible options are limited. Although the deer love it, there shouldn't be a problem harvesting the shoots as they typically only eat it later on in the growth cycle. That being said, if a small plant is continually eaten to the ground then it may simply die. I think even the bunny is eating it too. Another excellent perennial vegetable for food forests.
Photos: Hosta spp.
Edible: Rhizome, leaf, flower.
Propagation: Division. SPREADS AGGRESSIVELY
Conditions: Shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: First, a word of warning: do not plant this in the ground. This plant spreads so aggressively and is so impossible to remove that it's almost always better to keep it contained in a pot where it has no chance of escaping. It thrives in wet and shady locations but will grow anywhere, even in sun and dry soil. Try to pull it up and the petioles are so fragile that they break first, leaving the rhizome in the ground. I've been pulling these up for years! In one location I've planted Japanese butterbur, an equally aggressive plant, to hopefully out compete/shade it out.
In my experience this plant is not going to be a regular part of your diet. I only have the variegated version (which seems to revert to the standard variety in many locations) but the taste is fairly off-putting. To the best of my knowledge the variegated variety is edible in the same way although I can't be certain. I cannot imagine anyone eating this as a vegetable in any meaningful quantity. There is also a chance I am mildly allergic to it. Your best best would be to use the rhizomes or spring shoots as a garnish. Personally I wouldn't bother with it given the choice.
Photos: H. cordata.
Edible: Stem, leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. Wet soil.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: None. 🔴
Notes: This fast-growing leafy vegetable spreads by rhizome and loves growing in water or wet soil. No doubt an amazing option in tropical climates where it is perennial (if prevented from escaping), but in annual climates it is more of a hassle. Not only does it need wet soil, it also only really gets going in warm weather. The seed pods barely had enough time to ripen in my climate and it wil not self-sow. If harvesting seed pods let them dry before cracking them open carefully to reveal 2-4 large seeds. The plant spreads horizontally on the ground, making it potentially very useful in polycultures.
It is still a unique vegetable with interesting potential but not my favorite. There are narrow-leaf and broad-leaf forms, but I am unsure of how they are different beyond leaf appearance. I have grown the broad-leaf form only. A gardener in Thailand stated the flowers are edible as well but I have not seen any references to this.
Photos: I. aquatica.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: This is the only perennial, edible lettuce I've been able to find (or at least get seeds for). Perennial lettuce! And none of the terrible serrated leaves of some of the more common wild lettuce species. Grows in tough mountain conditions and seems to devote a good deal of resources developing an extremely deep root. I was wondering why the seedlings were staying so small until I repotted them. In conditions with low competition and tough soil, it makes sense that the plant would spend more time working on a deep root to draw up nutrients and water. It doesn't need to worry about being shaded out. The taste of the leaves is nice, very palatable even when in flower!
Photos: L. perennis.
Edible: Root, leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Sun to part shade.
Wildlife: Deer resistant?
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: The closest perennial alternative to celery, root is edible but mainly grown for shoots and young leaves.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed. Germination may be poor.
Conditions: Shade to part shade.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: An exciting vegetable from Korea but rarely grown here in the states. Forms a slowly expanding mound of large, kidney bean shaped leaves. The low profile and shade tolerance gives it an interesting niche and excellent potential for the food forest. I appreciate that it doesn't take up a lot of space but covers the soil well, may work as an understory ground cover. Leaves are usually harvested in early spring when still tender, and at this point they can be eaten raw. Older leaves or those harvested later in the season should be cooked. One of my favorite plants and is a stunning specimen when mature. I like to have these all around the garden and plant as many as I can. Dry and hot summers have killed at least one plant in my garden. Does not like dry soil but once established will tolerate some of it.
Seed grown plants seem to display a range of characteristics, so this vegetable offers a good opportunity for further selection and breeding. There is a cultivated variety 'Spiciformis' that has slightly different characteristics and is a useful source of genetic diversity. See here. Freshly harvested seed has germinated and grown really well for me. Some other species of Ligularia also have edible leaves, but none others are cultivated for this purpose.
Photos: L. fischeri. ↴
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Coming soon.
Photos: L. scoticum.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. May grow well in meadows.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: None. 🔴
Notes: Soft, hairy leaves are probably better cooked. Second year plants will produce an abundance of gorgeous purple flowers and a generous amount of seeds.
Photos: M. verticillata.
Edible: Root, leaf.
Propagation: Division, seed. SPREADS AGGRESSIVELY GROUNDCOVER
Conditions: Shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Occasionally nibbled.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Before planting this I was unsure if it would be alright outside of standing or flowing water. But it does just fine in regular garden conditions and the soil doesn't even need to be consistently wet. This is a tough plant. Based on research I initially thought this would only spread by stem rooting and would be relatively easy to control. That is unfortunately not the case. Once established this will spread aggressively by stolon and become extremely difficult to remove. They are easy to pull up with roots intact, though, unlike fish mint. Still, it is a valuable plant as it can be eaten in quantity and you'll never run out of it! If you can put up with how aggressive it is or place it somewhere confined, it is an amazing vegetable to grow for how productive it is and the great taste.
Just in terms of groundcovers that provide a palatable food that can be eaten regularly, this is one of the top performers. Some species in this genus are poisonous, they can look extremely similar and I generally do not worry about that in the garden but I would not be comfortable harvesting this from the wild.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture.
Photos: O. javanica.
Edible: Stem, leaf.
Propagation: Seed. Prefers warm soil to germinate.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant?
Status: None. 🔴
Notes: An adorable, beautiful, delicious and medicinal groundcover. It grows as an annual in my climate but generates tons of seeds well in advance of first frost. Often added to soups but would be a fun addition to salads, the taste is reminiscent of other peperomia species - surprisingly fruity with a citrus, peppery zing. I am unsure if the inflorescence are technically edible but they are difficult to avoid so I do eat the immature ones with the tender new growth. Wonderful potential as a groundcover for annual beds. It doesn't like cold climates like my own but will grow just fine if transplanted.
Photos: P. pellucida.
Edible: Leaf, inflorescence, seed.
Propagation: Seed, stem. Prefers sunlight to germinate. SELF-SOWS
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Entire plant toxic to many animals.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: One of the most beloved vegetables in my garden. Considered an escaped weed in many areas but a very old Korean vegetable that has been relied on for centuries. This plant is also the perfect example of one of the paradoxes most gardeners confront - vegetables that are too easy to grow are seen as weeds, and vegetables that are more difficult to grow just make life harder for us! Why not embrace the weedy vegetables? Why make life harder than it is? If you plant these out of the way and make sure their seeds don't get spread around it's no problem at all.
What surprised me was actually how relatively little this plant self-sowed considering all the horrors I've heard about it and some observations of it spreading prolifically near a local trail. In my garden I don't see too may plants coming up, certainly less than I would like. They have a strong preference for disturbed soil or edges next to a stream/field/trail and typically do not naturalize in conditions where there is little of that.
It grows enthusiastically and can tolerate shade or dry soil fairly well (don't believe online sources that say it needs consistently moist soil). Many forms are bushy and can get over 5 feet high with tons of fragrant leaves. Red varieties are used more as a garnish while green varieties are used more as a vegetable or for kimchi. Young and tender flowering shoots are edible whole, while flowers/buds can be picked off older shoots. P. frutescens var. crispa is the Japanese variety often called shiso, and P. frutescens var. frutescens is the korean variety often called perilla, although the names are sometimes used interchangeably.
The 38N Kkaennip variety has done exceptionally well for me after just tossing the seeds around the beds. This variety is wonderful and a standard. A bit tougher than other varieties but it makes up for that in how well it grows. This variety also sometimes 'catches' the flowers that fall off on the leaves below - these can be collected and used as a garnish. Talk about fancy. Green Ao is a nice Japanese variety, a bity soil, bein softer and better for eating raw, but not nearly as vigorous. This one flowers and dies earlier too.
Many varieties can get quite big and shade out nearby plants, so this is another reason to keep it out of the way. It is easy to imagine filling large areas with this plant in just a season or two. Big specimens will also produce a surprisingly thick and woody stem. This sort of carbon generation combined with its vigorous growth and ability to shade out weeds makes me think it could have a place in soil regeneration. As long as it can be controlled and easily removed for succession. Maybe throwing down seed while transplanting sunchoke and fruit trees. That would give you a nice three phase succession. Overall an extremely valuable plant.
Suggested Varieties: '38N Kkaennip' from Kitazawa Seed.
Photos: P. frutescens.
Edible: Petiole, leaf, inflorescence.
Propagation: Division, seed. May be difficult from seed. SPREADS AGGRESSIVELY
Conditions: Shade to part shade. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: This plant is real statement piece and adds a very architectural/immersive/tropical element to the garden. Once established it spread quickly by rhizome, sending up giant leaves on tall petioles that will quickly overtake any shady and wet area. Because of that it is very useful for shady areas where few other edible plants will grow. Will tolerate some heat but prefers it cool. Plant it in a spot where it can be easily managed and will not escape.
The entire plant has toxic alkaloids and should be eaten in moderation after preparing according to traditional methods. The petioles are the most common harvest, and should always be peeled after cooking. A Dictionary Of Japanese Food seems to indicate even the mature petioles can be eaten, but the younger ones are tastier and probably safer. Young leaves (roughly hand sized or smaller) are also eaten after cooking. The unopened flower head is a prefered traditional vegetable, although few English references mention this. These are called fukinoto.
P. japonicus var. giganteus is a larger variety edible in the same way, growing taller with larger leaves. Useful Plants Of Japan, Described And Illustrated writes that this larger variety is inferior in taste. There is also a purple-tinted variety. Related to the native P. frigidus, arctic butterbur, which is used for the young flowering shoots.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: P. japonicus.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: An undiscovered vegetable in the west, but it is absolutely wonderful! Renowned as a longevity medicinal and extremely nutritious. Shoots or young leaves eaten, unsure if older leaves have a history of being eaten but they taste fine. The taste right out of the garden is surprisingly palatable with crisp and succulent leaves (although it should be cooked before eating based on the few references I've seen for it).
The plant naturally grows on coasts with sandy or rocky soil, being regularly exposed to saline water and air. The fat root helps anchor it to cliffs with eroding soil. All this adds up to make it very resilient, exactly what we're looking for. In standard garden conditions it grows without any problems and seems to do fine even in moderate shade. Comes up very early in spring too. Dies in the heat of summer until next spring. An awesome plant.
Photos: P. japonicum ↴
Edible: Seedpod, seed.
Propagation: Seed. CLIMBING
Conditions: Part shade to sun. NITROGEN FIXER SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: This species is naturally a perennial in warmer climates and there may be potential to breed a cold-hardy perennial population. They do not survive here in Z7 as far as I know, but there is a Japanese variety 'Shinshu Runner' and this seems to be the hardiest variety. A cold-hardy perennial runner bean would be an incredible addition to the garden. Not only would it fix nitrogen like other beans but it could also serve as a staple perennial vegetable or protein.
P. vulgaris is the more common species and grows as an annual. Unlike the runner bean which always climbs, there are both bushy varieties and climbing varieties. If eating the raw pods of any species in this genus be sure to pick them when quite youn. Older pods, even if the beans are still green and tender, are mildly toxic and should not be eaten raw in quantity. Instead they should be cooked.
P. polystachios is the perennial wild bean native to much of North America. The cooked beans are edible although they are very small and not particularly practical. It may still be useful as a native nitrogen fixer.
Suggested Varieties: 'Shinshu Runner' from Peace Seedlings.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture.
Photos: P. coccineus. P. vulgaris.
Edible: Seedpod, seed.
Propagation: Seed. CLIMBING
Conditions: Part shade to sun. NITROGEN FIXER SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.greater
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Coming soon.
Photos: P. sativum.
Edible: Root, shoot.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun. Woodland.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A woodland vegetable perfect for a shady understory. The shoots are a high-quality vegetable. Will form patches but expands fairly slowly. P. multiflorum and P. biflorum can also be used. Many others. Excellent for food forests, plant under trees.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: Polygonatum spp.
Edible: Petiole.
Propagation: Division., seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: One of the more common perennial vegetables yet why that is I could not say. I mean how many people actually eat it? That being said it is a fun plant and quite beautiful. This species is the standard and has edible leaf petioles (often referred to as stalks). R. australe is edible in the same way. R. nobile is a gorgeous species with transparent leaves that create a greenhouse effect for the flowers underneath. Cultivation is difficult though and all my seedlings have died. R. acuminatum is a small Nepalese species that seems possibly hardy in my area. Traditionally dried and pickled. I would recommend following traditional preparation and always pickling it before eating (the drying may be optional). Died in the garden.
Photos: R. acuminatum.
Edible: Petiole, leaf.
Propagation: Division., seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. May grow well in meadows. EASY & VIGOROUS SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: Sorrel is so easy to grow it makes for an excellent introduction to perennial vegetables. It does contain oxalic acid like many other vegetables and so should be cooked if eating in large quantities. It is yet another great example of plants that are at once considered a weed when in the garden but a delicious vegetable when served at a fancy restaurant.
This particular species is absolutely stunning and one of the largest within the genus. Long petioles, very large leaves and just as easy to grow as the rest. The leaves are very broad making them good for laying down and blocking weeds. Edible in exactly the same way as well, young leaves in spring are quite palatable.
Many, if not all, of the species in this genus grow quickly in poor soil and have deep, extensive root systems. Combine that with the fact that this particular species generates a lot of biomass and we have an excellent candidate for soil regeneration. The large leaves also make perfect mulch so I have many of these all around the garden for this purpose. I think this plant is worthy of being incorporated into regenerative food systems.
Common sorrel, R. acetosa, is the standard. This species has edible flowers according to Cornucopia whereas most others do not. R. crispus is a huge weed in my area but I enjoy growing it in the garden. The taste is just fine and it grows big and fast. Excellent for mulch and building soil. Many other edible species. Alpine dock seems to be appreciated by the deer after all the good stuff has been eaten, but I don't notice the other sorrel species getting eaten. Maybe because they flower much sooner and so are more bitter.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture.
Photos: Rumex spp.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: A strange little vegetable that functions more as a garnish with a refreshing and crisp flavor. It forms small mounds and grows very easily. Just tossing seeds around the beds was enough to get many plants established. They grew very well for two years and then all suddenly died one winter, not sure why. Not particularly useful in my opinion but an interesting option nonetheless. Listed in the Chiu Huang Pen Ts'ao, a book on famine foods from ancient China. The flowers are small but beautiful and fascinating. Little globes of pink give way to a delicate yellow.
Photos: S. minor.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Coming soon.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Shoot, fruit.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Shade to part shade. Woodland
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A vegetable very similar to solomon's seal. Grows in the same conditions, looks similar and is eaten the same way. Except this one also has edible berries which are apparently a laxative if the body is not accustomed to them. S. japonica has edible shoots.
Photos: Smilacina spp.
Edible: Root, stem, leaf, inflorescence, seed.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: An important vegetable from ancient Rome and considered a resilient alternative to celery. Often classified as a short lived perennial since it may live a few years but it dies after going to flower. Every single part of this plant is edible! Amazing potential. The seed is even used as an alternative to black pepper. Some sources indicate that the seed needs cold stratification but some will germinate without this. The seedlings are nice and big so they are easy to identify and transplant. No luck in the garden so far, still experimenting.
S. perfoliatum and S. rotundifolium (the prettiest of the bunch) are fairly similar and can be eaten the same way. There are other species within this genus that may also be of use but I haven't found any information on them.
Photos: S. olusatrum.
Edible: Stem, leaf, inflorescence.
Propagation: Seed. GROUNDCOVER SELF-SOWS
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: This small weed is one of the best salad crops, and it grows everywhere! Tender, juicy, mild and refreshing. The only catch is harvesting a lot of it can be difficult unless you have a dense patch of it. Cornucopia writes that the flowers are edible as well, so pick all the tender new growth. Identifiable by the vertical line of hair running along the stem, alternating sides after every joint. I also love having this plant in the garden beds because it doesn't compete too much with other crops and stays low to the ground. It sprawls and functions as a non-competitive groundcover in that way. Dies back once the weather starts to warm up.
Leaves of S. neglecta can also be eaten. S. pubera is a native perennial, growing into small mounds. Spring shoots are an excellent salad green like the annual species (perhaps even more succulent), although once the plant becomes larger they are tough and useless unlike the annual weed. Some species in this genus looks similar to species in Cerastium genus, those are usually much fuzzier but also edible in the same way.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: S. pubera. S. media. Cerastium spp.
Edible: Root, leaf, flower.
Propagation: Seed. SELF-SOWS
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows. DROUGHT TOLERANT SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer resistant? Leaves fed to many animals.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: If you think you can't grow vegetables, think again! You probably already are growing this amazing vegetable. It has been used as a food by many cultures throughout history. Tolerates almost any soil. Grows in spring and fall but not summer.
Leaves are calorie and nutrient dense as far as leafy vegetables go. The crowns can also be prepared as a unique vegetable after thorough cleaning. The root is sometimes eaten or used as a coffee substitute. I always blow their seeds all around the garden as they are beautiful plants that help improve compacted soil with their taproots. And when grown in garden beds they become very nice and large. T. albidum is the Japanese white dandelion, eaten the same way.
Photos: T. officinale.
Edible: Leaf, flower.
Propagation: Seed. CLIMBING
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: I thought this plant would be another annoying annual to deal with but they are not too bad. The flowers are gorgeous and taste delicious! I prefer eating these over the leaves which are a bit hotter. The plant does well with heat and dry soil and is essentially care free after planting the seed if the soil is loose enough. Can clamber on other plants but overall isn't particularly competetive.
The seeds can be planted a few inches deep, much deeper than most, and I suspect this helps with drought tolerance. They don't pick up speed until summer but once they do they are so much fun to watch. I have been enjoying the 'Jewels' heirloom vairety. T. nanum is very similar, some others.
Photos: T. majus.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Division., stem, seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: An extremely nutritious and tasty vegetable that would likely be much more popular if not for the stinging hairs that are painful to the touch. Shoots are the most prized harvest, or the tender new growth after they get bigger.
There supposedly exists a subspecies 'Galeopsifolia' that has significantly more mild stings, if any at all. I beleive this is the form I have in my garden. I can almost always touch it with no problem although I did get a very mild sting once. I am not sure of the exact identification but these non-stinging varieties seem very promising. It also makes me wonder if they could be bred to sting less. This variety also clumps and does not spread rapidly like some other varieties. If you can get your hands on the stingless variety then it is an absolutely essential addition to the deer-resistant vegetable garden.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: U. dioica.
Edible: Shoot, flower.
Propagation: Division.
Conditions: Shade to part shade. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: In the very same genus as common ginger but this species is much hardier and can survive down to Z6. It is also not the rhizomes that are eaten, but the shoots and flower buds. Flowers are normally eaten as buds but can be a bit tough for my taste unless you peel away a lot of the outer layers (which removes most of the mass of the thing though). Probably why they are often shredded. I much prefer eating the blooming yellow flowers. They are a bit heavy on pollen but a rinse should fix this if it presents any problems. Taste is great, snappy like ginger and a good texture. I've never seen any reference to flowers being eaten like this but generally it would be considered safe.
An excellent perennial vegetable that can grow in sun or shade and takes off quickly. Overall very tolerant of a variety of conditions. Quickly forms tall clumps with a very tropical appearance. Stems and leaves make for excellent mulch like other gingers. Comes up in late May for me. Very easy to divide and spread all around the garden. One of the most reliable perennial vegetables.
Z. kawagoii did not survive winter for me. None of it is edible but I have seen reports that the root is used medicinally. Z. officinale, common ginger, can grow as an annual. It also has edible shoots.
Photos: Z. mioga. Z. kawagoii.
Edible: Bulb, leaf. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Usually grown as an annual but there are perennial forms. Elephant garlic can be grown as a perennial but it will probably need to be divided regularly. Seems to me the best perennial bulbing onion, at the very least it survives in my garden unlike most others. I grow these with my potatoes and divide them at the same time as well. I was turned onto leeks by the biointensive method, as leeks are very calorically dense. Like other bulbing onions they need loose soil and a decent amount of water.
🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture.
Suggested Varieties: 'Elephant Garlic'
Photos: A. ampeloprasum.
Edible: Bulb, leaf.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant, except in times of scarcity.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: This species has potential to perennialize in the right conditions but is grown as an annual. Not much luck with it.
Photos: A. cepa aggregatum.
Edible: Bulb, leaf, bulbet.
Propagation: Division, bulbet.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Eaten in winter.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Walking onions are a form of clumping green onions, but unlike bunching onions they form little bulbets instead of seeds after flowering. Despite everything I have read online about how easy and reliable this species is, they never seem to last long in my garden. I've grown them in raised beds with great results but since removing those beds they've never succeeded. This species is apparently a hybrid of A. cepa var. aggregatum and A. fistulosum.
Photos: A. cepa proliferum.
Edible: Bulb, leaf.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Eaten in winter.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Similar to walking onions, although I don't think every variety is cold hardy enough for my climate. Will multiply and can be divided for propagation. Forms seeds after flowering. No luck yet.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Root, bulb, leaf.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: Uncommon here in the west but a standard in some other countries and one of my favorites. Flat leaves grow in clumps, a bit similar to chives. But these have a great taste and are eaten as a vegetable. The roots (the actual roots, not the bulb or rhizome) are also eaten once they become big enough on older plants. I don't usually bother with that because the leaves are already so great. The last onion to come up in spring but very reliable growers for me. Probably appreciates the heat and humidity we share with southeast Asia, where it is more commonly grown. Forms dense mounds once mature, with enough plants this could make a really high quality ground cover for taller vegetables to grow through. Like other leafy onions it is fine with normal conditions and doesn't need especially loose soil like bulbing onions.
Photos: A. hookeri.
Edible: Bulb, leaf.
Propagation: Division.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: The only true shallot, originally found growing wild in China. Not the same species as common shallots. Like some other onions listed here, the conditions in my garden just don't seem right for them to grow properly.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Bulb, leaf, scape. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Division, bulbet, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Some pests.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: I have tried growing garlic as a perennial but so far the results have been poor. Could potentially work in a rotation with potatoes.
Photos: A. sativum.
Edible: Bulb, leaf.
Propagation: Division, seed. Cold stratify.
Conditions: Shade to part shade.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: The most prized onion and threatened in the wild by foraging. Grows in forest understory, getting all its light in early spring before the trees leaf out. But it can grow in the garden just as well, any spot with rich soil should work. Here it comes up around early April. Takes years to reach maturity from seed. Bulbs can be purchased for a much quicker start, but be sure they are not being harvested from the wild. I believe A. victorialis would be a similar alternative, although much rarer in cultivation here.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Bulb, leaf, scape, flower.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Coming soon.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Rhizome.
Propagation: Division.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Coming soon.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Root, leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: One of many genera in the bellflower family with species that grow edible roots. This species is the standard for edible roots within this genus, eaten as a vegetable. Shoots and leaves can also be eaten, although this is less common. From seed it seems to be slow and picky about growing conditions, I haven't quite figured out exactly what it needs yet. Harvest after 2-3 years like other perennial roots.
A. latifolia and A. communis are also used for the root. A. liliifolia is the most common here in America, often grown as an ornamental but also with an edible root. I purchased some roots of this plant and they did great for a little while before I lost them.
Photos: A. triphylla. A. lilifolia.
Edible: Rhizome, shoot, flower.
Propagation: Division.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. 🔴
Notes: In the ginger family (along with common ginger and turmeric), this one more common in southeast Asia. Of all the tropical gingers I have grown, this seems to be the easiest and the most heat tolerant. It is also the most beautiful in my personal opinion. On the flipside it is not very cold hardy and the rhizome expands slowly. I need to experiment with it more but it doesn't seem super practical for cultivation in my climate. Use the rhizome like you would any other ginger. A. officinarum is grown and used the same way.
Photos: A. galanga.
Edible: Root, leaf, flower.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive. Bunny sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: I love how straightforward this plant is. It grows well in most conditions with a moderate amount of sun, and grows tall enough to easily handle any competition from nearby weeds. Definitely one of the more vigorous perennial roots. The biomass it generates is also nothing to sneeze at. Easily divided once multiple shoots start coming up. The roots and leaves can be eaten as vegetables, although the leaves can be a bit too hairy for that when raw so are usually cooked. A Modern Herbal writes about the plant:
The Chinese use some sort of Mallow in their food, and Prosper Alpinus stated (in 1592) that a plant of the Mallow kind was eaten by the Egyptians. Many of the poorer inhabitants of Syria, especially the Fellahs, Greeks and Armenians, subsist for weeks on herbs, of which Marsh Mallow is one of the most common. When boiled first and fried with onions and butter, the roots are said to form a palatable dish, and in times of scarcity consequent upon the failure of the crops, this plant, which fortunately grows there in great abundance, is much collected for food.
Unfortunately I have yet to find any other sources that discuss the use of the root as food. I suspect they can be eaten regularly just because of how safe this plant is but I do not have evidence to back this up. The young cooked roots have a very mild, almost pleasant taste and are somewhat fiberous. Assuming it can be eaten in reasonable quantities as a vegetable, I think it can function as a staple perennial root. Just based on the yields I see and how well it grows practically anywhere, this is an extremely valuable plant. Could be used in soups I think. Medicinal for soar throat or coughs as well as a variety of other ailments.
Photos: A. officinalis.
Edible: Tuber, seedpod.
Propagation: Division, seed. CLIMBING
Conditions: Shade to sun. Woodland. NITROGEN FIXER
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A native and protien-rich perennial root gaining more widespread cultivation here in the states. Naturally more of a woodland plant so it is adapted to some shade, but they already grow slowly enough as it is so the more sun they can get the better. The tubers form along long stolons, the plant does best with moist soil and something to climb on, although it can be allowed to sprawl. Take care when weeding so as not to yank any plants that the vine has attached itself to.
Perennial, vining, cold hardy root crops are rare so this serves an interesting niche in that regard. It also fixes nitrogen but since the root is the part harvested I am unsure if it would benefit the soil as much as other nitrogen fixers.
Wild varieties can be very small compared to improved varieties that came from some defunct breeding programs, so make sure to order an improved variety. I never have great yields from these, still working on how to incorporate them into small spaces. Best on a 2-3 year rotation since it grows slowly.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: A. americana.
Edible: Root, leaf. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Seed. SELF-SOWS
Conditions: Shade to part shade. Woodland.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A high quality root that actually prefers shade. Relatively calorically dense but the length of the root makes harvesting difficult. Take this into account when planting - you will need some space to dig it up without breaking it in half. Deep containers may also work. The seeds are contained in small spiny capsules that are the famous inspiration for velcro. Tossing the capsules around from one wild plant successfully started two new plants in the garden, although it prefers bare soil to germinate. A. minus is a smaller species, eaten and used the same way.
Photos: A. minus.
Edible: Root, leaf.
Propagation: Division.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Hot root used as condiment and shoots/young leaves eaten as vegetable. Expands into patches, large leaves. Preference for full sun. Beautiful plant, leaves have unique texture and shape.
Suggested Varieties: 'Mixed Phenotype' from Cultivariable.
Photos: A. rusticana.
Edible: Root.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Coming soon.
Photos: B. vulgaris.
Edible: Root, leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Root and leaves fed to many animals, may be mildly toxic.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Of all the species in the Brassica genus, I think turnips show the most potential. They can be eaten for their leaves or flowering shoots, just like the others. In fact, they are often just as good as the others in this regard. But they also have a root! So not only do they do what the others do, they also provide a great source of energy in the form of a taproot on top of that. This is great for two reasons. One, it is an additional, calorie-dense harvest. Two, it is a wonderful way to feed the soil. So even if you don't care about the root, you can harvest the leaves and let the root die, aerating and feeding the soil.
I think there is potential to use turnips as the foundation for breeding a super-mustard. In my imagination this is a mustard that makes a fat taproot, produces an abundance of mild leaves and a large, tender flowering shoot, and only sets seed after overwintering. Now that would be nice, right? Unfortunately they don't seem to overwinter reliably in my climate. I will continue my search for the right hardy and productive variety.
Used to pelt ancient roman governors, not just a nutritious food but also a revolutionary weapon! Let best plants go to seed, harvest others before flowering.
Suggested Varieties: 'Scarlet Ohno Revival' from Wild Garden Seed.
Photos: B. rapa.
Edible: Root, leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Have not had much success with this plant, the prospect of it self-sewing seems slim. Not to be confused with C rapunculoides, a perennial eaten in the same way but considered an aggressive weed and probably best left out of the garden unless it is contained. C. latifolia should be a better perennial alternative.
Photos: C. rapunculus.
Edible: Rhizome, shoot. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Occasionally nibbled. Entire plant fed to cows and pigs.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Once a staple crop but even in its native region I do not know if it is very common anymore. The Forest Farms of Kandy mentions it being used as a staple crop in central Java (although no longer favored and seen as a low-status food), and it has also been important in Peru. In southern Peru it is grown for roughly 9 months to harvest from August-May/June and can yield roughly 6 pounds per plant. There it is better suited for lower elevation than the tuber crops (growing at an elevation of 2,300-2,700 meters near Cusco). It toerates heat better and is more sensitive to frost. I have seen it suggested that this plant yields better with little mulch however the farmer I visited mounded it just like any other crop they grow.
One of the oldest cultivated crops. Beautiful colorful rhizomes grow close to the ground, expand quickly and send up magnificent tropical leaves with stems that grow over 5 feet high. Like taro this plant does not get going until the beginning of June. I suspect it waits until the nights start to warm up. This is independent of whether I plant the bare rhizome or transplant them with existing top growth. I'm still figuring out how to improve this if possible.
This is one of my favorite plants and the single-most underutilized crop I have yet to come across. First off, this plant is very easy to grow. Despite the tropical appearance it will produce even in temperate climates with relatively short growing seasons. It needs mostly sun and loose soil but is not picky and does just fine surviving off rainwater in my garden, with periods where the soil dries out. Many references indicate it needs consistently moist soil - this will improve yields but it is absolutely not essential. These plants are resilient.
Second, not only is it gorgeous but it makes an incredible amount of high quality biomass. The leaves are thick and the stems are chunky. This is an amazing mulch plant and I would grow it just for this purpose even if it also did not produce an edible root! Excellent for soil regeneration.
Finally, this plant is productive. It requires the entire growing season, but yields of 5 pounds per plant are possible with the right variety and in the right conditions. That is insanely productive and this is one of the highest calorie-producing roots for temperate climates. That is an entire day's worth of food from a single plant. 2-3 pounds is more normal though. This plant may be a perennial in Z8 and above but does not survive winters here. Young root can be harvested mid-season by slicing it with a shovel and leaving the rest in the ground. Heavy winds may bend or rip some leaves but this is never much of a problem.
Like taro I have a hard time differnentaiting between varieties and the labels are all long long for the 4-5 varieties I grow. There are definitely signifcant differences in terms of yield, same with taro. Some varieties seem to prioritise rhizome growth better than others and also have bigger, unsprouted rhizomes. These are the ones that I like and I will try to identify the names of these so I can pass it along.
Can be eaten raw but usually cooked. The easiest way to prepare the roots is to bake with the skin attached. Bake thoroughly until the the inside is completely soft. Then peal off the skin before eating. It is somewhat neutral in flavor but slightly sweet. I have no doubt it could be made into a perfectly appetizing dish.
C. indica can be grown and used the same way but there is no reason to do this because the yields are much lower. It may be hardier though.
🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: C. edulis.
Edible: Root, leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Interesting carrot family vegetable, good potential but I've never had much luck and any specimens that survive until winter just end up dying before they can flower in spring. C. prescottii is the wild brother to this cultivated vegetable. A dozen plants were established after broadcasting seeds on beds, very easy as long as they get stratified and also biennial. Sun or moderate shade, very flexible with soil. This one also has an edible root (leaf I am unsure of) and it gets a decent sized root, maybe a 2-3 inches. Potential to be bred for larger root or used as a soil regenerator.
Very similar in appearance to poison hemlock but a few important differences. Base of flowering stem and petioles are hairy. That's the biggest indicator, it does have some purple spotting but not to the same degree as poison hemlock and it is more concentrated on the lower half of the plant. Seeds are also a dead giveaway, much more elongated than poison hemlock. I have never spotted this in the wild whereas poison hemlock is common.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Root.
Propagation: Division, seed. CLIMBING
Conditions: Part shade to sun. Woodland.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: One of the few perennial, vining/sprawling root crops. I am fascinated by the species in this genus and their potential incorporation into food forests but I've had a difficult time cultivating them. I've tried multiple different species in multiple different locations but they never last long.
Many species in this genus have edible roots. This species is the standard in Korea. Plants For Human Consumption writes that the shoots of this species can also be eaten. C. pilosula is the chinese medicinal, known as dang shen (党参), although the root can be eaten like a vegetable as well. These two species are supposedly hardy to about Z7, but there are hardier species that also have edible roots. Roots are harvested at around 3 years.
Photos: Codonopsis spp.
Edible: Corm, shoot. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Corm.
Conditions: Shade to sun. Wet soil. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: One of the oldest and most important food plants with hundreds of different varieties, cultivated for almost as long as humans have been farming. One could spend an entire lifetime learning how to grow this sacred plant, and many still do. Unfortunately here in the states most varieties are purely ornamental and it's difficult to find anything besides the most common edible varieties. Every part of the plant requires thorough cooking due to the presence of calcium oxalate, an irritating substance broken down by heat. That being said taro is generally a safe plant, shoots are frequently eaten and even stolons are eaten from those varieties which have them.
Like achira this plant does not get going until the beginning of June. I suspect it waits until the nights start to warm up. This is independent of whether I plant the bare corm or transplant them with existing top growth. I'm still figuring out how to improve this if possible.
For an index of most varieties, see the classic source Taro Varieties Of Hawaii, or University Of Hawaii and Kupuna Kalo. Most do not reliably overwinter below Z8. The more water they have the better, but they are fine with normal garden conditions as well. Many are under the impression taro can only be grown in tropical climates, but this isn't true. It will still produce in temperate climates if you have the right variety!
Corms are formed continuously as the plants grows, so even if it doesn't grow very long you will still get something out of it. If not for eating at least to divide and replant next season. The yields I get out of taro are at best what I would get out of a potato. Considering that taro takes up significantly more space in the garden, one might wonder why it's worth it beyond just adding more diversity (which in turns adds resilience). The first thing to consider is the caloric density of taro. It has about 500 calories to the pound, whereas potatoes only have about 350. That means about two pounds of taro will provide roughly the same calories as three pounds of potatoes. Another thing to consider is biomass generation. Potatoes are small plants that barely produce any mulch at all and need to be maintained to prevent weeds from overtaking them. In my climate with rich soil and plentiful rain, weeds grow much taller than potatoes. However taro normally grows over 5 feet tall, creating multiple pounds of biomass for mulching per plant, and effectively competes with most weeds once it gets going in summer. Taro is an excellent example of a plant that feeds us and the soil at the same time.
C. gigantea is a little-known relative of taro called Bac Ha. It grows larger than taro, older specimens growing over 6 feet high. The leaves are also huge and magnificent, hence the common name giant taro. Unfortunately only the leaf petioles are eaten, so it provides far less food than taro does. Leaves are never eaten, no matter how young. Still, the petioles are a unique and delicious vegetable, something like spongy celery, often used in soups. Must be peeled and cooked. Will overwinter in my climate in sun and good soil, possibly perennial in the right spot, marginally hardy. For me it never grows big when grown as a perennial and gets a very late start just like taro.
There are also ornamental clones of this species such as 'Thailand Giant' or similar ones sold in many nurseries. Do not eat any part of these. They are not the same. Remember, taxonomy has its limits and only the standard form of this plant has a history of being eaten. The standard variety used for food can be found on ebay or etsy. Plants in this genus are very closely related to those in the Alocasia genus, some of which are used as food as well. Bac Ha is often incorrectly identified as coming from this genus. I don't think any Alocasia species are cultivated for food in temperate climates.
🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Suggested Varieties: 'Tsurunoko' and 'Miyako'
Photos: C. esculenta. C. gigantea.
Edible: Rhizome, shoot.
Propagation: Division.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Probably the highest yielding ginger in my garden. Another plant that people associate with tropical climates yet are sufficiently productive when grown as annuals in temperate climates. This species only get a few feet tall and just by the looks of it, you wouldn't expect to get much out of it. But I was surprised by how quickly the rhizome grew, even when the plants were getting sunburnt from the summer heat. Rich soil with shelter from heat is best, especially when growing as a perennial. But letting it get a bit burnt can be worth the higher yield resulting from full sun. Will occasionally overwinter in my climate, possibly perennial in the right spot, marginally hardy but gets a very late start and is useless when grown this way. C. amada, mango ginger, grows much taller. Just as productive but not as hardy. Leaves of both species make excellent mulch.
Photos: C. longa.
Edible: Root, leaf, seed.
Propagation: Seed. Cold stratify? SELF-SOWS
Conditions: Part shade to sun. SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive. Root and leaves fed to many animals. POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: I didn't realize how much I enjoyed carrots until I tried one that wasn't the crap sold in grocery stores. I mean wow, like a totally different vegetable! I try to incorporate as many taprooted plants in my garden as I can because they help improve the soil when allowed to go to seed. Just like radishes and turnips, carrots offer the same benefits.
The wild carrot, also known as queen anne's lace, is the very same species and is often considered a weed in my area. That's a good indication that carrots will have success naturalizing in the garden. And out of all the annuals/biennials I grow, carrots seem to be one of the best plants suited for this. I was further convinced of the carrot's potential when I was reading The Book Of Herbal Wisdom as follows:
Wild Carrot grows in heavy grasses, where it is difficult for the little barbed seeds to penetrate the turf. And yet they do, so that the plant proliferates widely in heavy turf as well as bare ground. It is like a needle piercing through.
The domesticated carrot still retains some of these wonderful qualities, able to germinate and grow even among tough competition. This is a refreshing quality for such a common root vegetable when others, and I am particularly thinking of those in the mustard family like turnips or radishes, have such a persistent preference for bare soil. It is also very tolerant of heat and dry soil so it withstands our summers with ease. It does not wish to bolt until it has grown for long enough.
In a newsletter from Quail Seeds it was mentioned that seeds in the carrot family have compounds that inhibit germination until they are washed off by melting snow (or rain). The carrot family is full of poisonous lookalikes, so always be sure of your identification. Let best plants go to seed, harvest others before flowering.
Suggested Varieties: 'Over The Rainbow Carrot Mix' from Experimental Farm Network.
Photos: D. carota sativa.
Edible: Tuber, leaf, aerial tuber.
Propagation: Aerial tuber. CLIMBING SPREADS AGGRESSIVELY
Conditions: Part shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer sensitive, preferred.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: Most yams are only grown in warmer climates and would be annuals in Z7 climates, but this species is particularly cold hardy. The tuber extends very deep into the earth, often over a foot long, and sends up a climbing vine with beautiful, heart-shapes leaves. When the plant is old enough, small aerial tubers form at the leaf nodes. These fall to the ground after the leaves die back, and sprout to become new plants. So the aerial tubers are edible in exactly the same way as the main tuber. They do spread very easily and can become invasive, so be sure to contain them.
The root is very fragile and cannot be pulled out of the ground, so without any soil preparation beforehand it would have to be excavated. Because of this, you may need to plant them in a large barrel, raised bed or some form of perforated bag or container buried in the ground. I use a raised bed made of cinderblocks. I can imagine if there were enough of these riased beds with yams, a few could be harvested from every year and this would be a really easy way to get good production with little to no maintenence and no digging. That would be a lot of upfront work but could be very useful in the long term. A trellis is also necessary to provide something for the vine to climb on. Aerial tubers sometimes take a few weeks (or longer) to sprout roots, so get them ready early. They may benefit from a period of cold. There are a few different varieties that have differently shaped tubers but I don't know much beyond that. There may be varieties with tubers that grow closer to the soil surface and are easier to dig up.
The naming of this species is something of a mess. It is sometimes referred to as D. polystachya, although whether they are truly the same species or not is unclear. The older name is D. opposita.
The book Ethnobotany and Useful Resource Plants of Dokdo and Ulleung Island in Korea indicates that the young leaves and tender new growth of this particular species can be eaten after being cooked. I was a bit skeptical having never seen this references anywhere else, but the creator of Sesame Sprinkles confirmed that korean recipes that make use of the leaves do in fact exist. She informed me they are usually pickled in soy sauce (마잎장아찌). I later learned that Korean reference books almost always mention the young leaves as being edible too. So definitely give them a try after cooking or pickling. D. japonica, the Japanese species, is very similar and Cornucopia indicates it can be eaten the same way.
🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture.
Photos: D. batatas.
Edible: Root, leaf, flower.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Shade. Shelter from heat.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. 🔴
Notes: This plant produces the famous and expensive wasabi root rarely found outside of Japan. Normally cultivated in clean, flowing water but it will do just fine with moist soil and protection from heat and intense sunlight. It will not tolerate summer heat so keep it shaded. The leaves are edible, somewhat hot but nothing particularly special. Normally propagated by separating offshoots from the mother root. Not a great option for my climate.
Photos: E. japonicum.
Edible: Rhizome, shoot, flower.
Propagation: Division.
Conditions: Shade to part shade. Shelter from heat.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: A beautiful alternative to common ginger with tropical leaves and flowers that smell absolutely divine. Fresh rhizomes are pale with brilliant shades of purple. It will not tolerate heat so I have grown it in a sheltered and partially shady area. I have observed this surviving winter here with no special preparations beyond the right siting in a warmer microclimate. If this can replace ginger as a perennial alternative then it would be a huge addition to the temperate permaculture garden.
Plants For Human Consumption writes that the rhizome is edible and Richo at Strictly Medicinal writes it can be used the same way as common ginger. Flower buds are eaten as a vegetable. The Wild Edible Plants Of Honghe table in the resource section indicates the shoot is edible as well. Seems like a fairly safe plant overall, as many gingers are.
Photos: H. coronarium.
Edible: Tuber. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Tuber, seed. May be difficult from seed. SPREADS AGGRESSIVELY
Conditions: Part shade to sun. May grow well in meadows. EASY & VIGOROUS SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive, preferred. Entire plant fed to many animals.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: One of the most important crops native to America. This plant grows vigorously and produces a heavy yield of inulin-rich tubers given the right conditions. Once the tops die back, harvest the tubers as needed. Leaving them in the ground over winter will help reduce the levels of inulin, making the tubers sweeter and easier to digest. Boiling them with lemon juice will also help. As with other perennial tuber forming plants, the first year growing them may be unproductive and offer a poor harvest. But once they are established they will spread like crazy and offer much more. Needs loose, moist soil for good production like many tubers.
Some varieties are shorter but many grow over 10 feet high and can sometimes flop over without support. Varieties can differ significantly in size and shape of tubers as well. Produces an amazing amount of biomass which make for great mulch. An excellent famine crop. This plant is basically the temperate equivilent of foundational, life sustaining perennial roots like taro and cassava. It cannot be overstated how important this plant will become to temperate agriculture in the near future. Give me oaks and give me sunchokes and I will survive.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: H. tuberosus.
Edible: Root, leaf.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: Medicinal but it has been eaten in the past. Beautiful, large, fuzzy leaves are a statement piece and immediately draw the eye. When young they can be eaten although don't seem very palatable. The root grows quickly and is the main medicinal component, but it can be used as a garnish or flavoring as well.
The leaves are large enough to effectively block out most surrounding competition and make great mulch as well. Grows quickly and a fun plant to have in the garden. In my garden one plant in moist soil that was more clay died over winter, but another further up the hill with better draining soil survived and is doing very well. Partial shade is fine. I. racemosa is also used medicinally.
Photos: I. helenium. I. racemosa.
Edible: Tuber, leaf.
Propagation: Division, seed. SPREADS AGGRESSIVELY
Conditions: Shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: One of many species in the mint family that produce edible tubers, this being one of the largest. It has been eaten in Japan in the past but even there it is uncommon. As the name suggests it grows like a weed, strong and tall, easily competing with other plants due to its fast growth and height. Tiny flowers form at the leaf nodes and are popular with some insects. This plant also makes an excellent trellis for planting something like beans right next to wherever the shoots appear. It also generates a good deal of biomass and may be useful for improving soil, especially when you take into account the fat stolons that spread everywhere.
Tubers may not form well the first year growing this, but once established it will spread aggressively and become more productive. This is definitely one to plant in an easily controlled location as the stolons can travel underground to pop up anywhere nearby. Shoots or tender new growth are also eaten cooked, as indicated by multiple sources including a korean reference book I use.
Some other species within this genus have edible roots as well, like natives L. asper and L. americanus. Native American Ethnobotany writes that L. uniflorus was a staple root crop of the Okanagon people. I would recommend giving native species a go before trying the Asian species.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture.
Photos: L. lucidus. ↴
Edible: Root, leaf.
Propagation: Division, stem, seed. May be difficult from seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: None. 🔴
Notes: Another Andean root crop that was once a staple in its native region but is now less common. My understanding is that this plant was a real godsend as after a few years in the ground the roots would get absolutely huge and offer a reliable source of food.
Roots and leaves both contain calcium oxalate which can cause irritation when eating. Eating raw leaves is unpleasant for me because of this. The root must be cooked anyway but if it's still a problem change out the water and cook it longer. Some varieties may have less calcium oxalate than others. The root also has a woody core that must be removed before eating.
They don't seem to grow well once the weather starts to heat up. In the spring they are fine but the summer basically kills them off. Perhaps they could be grown in partial shade but the practicality of growing it as an annual becomes unlikely then. The only nursery I know of that sells this is Sacred Succulents.
Photos: M. expansa.
Edible: Tuber, stem, leaf. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Tuber, stem, seed. May be difficult from seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer/bunny sensitive?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: A fun little tuber in an array of cool colors. The tubers form in the short days of fall, so the yields are almost always lower than that of the average potato. Even in climate were they can tuberize immediately the yields are gnerally lower than the potato. But unlike the potato it is not susceptible to many diseases or pests. I have tried it a few times and it never does that well for me. I think a bunny is eating the leaves. Tubers are harvested after tops die back and generally left out in the sun for a few days to sweeten them. Flavors can be sweet or sour or similar to potato depending on the variety. There are bitter vairieties too. The leaves and stems are edible as well but very sour. O. stricta is a common garden weed, all above ground parts edible.
Photos: O. tuberosa.
Edible: Root, leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Parsley but with a carrot like root. Good potential.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Root, shoot, flower.
Propagation: Division, seed. Prefers sunlight to germinate.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. May grow well in meadows.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: One of many root crops in the bellflower family, but this is my favorite because it so much more reliable and easier to grow than all the others. I think this has the potential to be a staple crop in temperate climates. Very cold hardy as well. It seems there are a few cultivars used for the edible root - the standard blue flowered variety, one with white flowers, and one that produces an especially large root. This is just based on what I see in catalogs so I don't know much beyond that. Harvest at 2-3 years old, roots older than this are used medicinally. Shoots are also eaten as a vegetable. This is a brilliant plant to divide every year, have it grow everywhere, harvest for food as you need it, just like marshmallow.
Photos: P. grandiflorus.
Edible: Root, leaf, inflorescence, seedpod.
Propagation: Seed. Prefers sunlight to germinate.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive. Root and leaves fed to many animals.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Can be used to improve soil like other taproots. Doesn't survive winter here. Less cold hardy than turnips. Older and larger roots have a stronger flavor, while young roots can be picked for a milder flavor. The leaves are edible but not very tasty. The seedpods are an excellent vegetable and produced in quantity. Some varieties of radishes have been bred just for their pods. In my experience the pods tends to flop over and take a long time to dry, making them a bit awkward in the garden. Let best plants go to seed, harvest others before flowering. R. raphanistrum is the wild radish which can be eaten the same way.
Photos: R. sativus.
Edible: Tuber, shoot.
Propagation: Tuber.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. Wetland.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Occasionally nibbled.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A productive crop when grown in water and its small tubers were relied upon by native Americans. The deer do seem to eat these plants every so often but usually avoid them. I tried growing it in the soil that I grow taro and achira because I don't have a pond but it died back in the summer. I thought it was gone for good but they returned the following spring! It most likely did not produce any significant tubers but now that I know it can be grown like this I will continue experimenting with polycultures and other cultivation methods. I see this species growing in sunny spots alongside cattail in the wild. I also see it in shady, muddy spots. Seems to be fairly adaptable. S. trifolia is the chinese species and grows very similarly, can be eaten the same way.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: S. latifolia.
Edible: Root, leaf, flower. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: This plant and common salsify (further down) are both vegetables that I think of as more edible versions of the dandelion. They can all be eaten the same way and all have a similar niche. They are all easily grown from seed. They are all perenials despite some sources indicating this species is a biennial. It is best when young at the 2-3 year sweet spot like other perennial roots but will live longer if left to grow. My hope is that this species can self-sow and can function as a calorically dense ground cover for other taller perennial vegetables to grow through.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Tuber. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Tuber, seed. May be difficult from seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive, preferred. Many pests.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: The potato is well-known as a miracle crop for its ability to keep people alive. They are produtive, calorie-dense, eaten in quantity, and easy to digest. They have moderate soil and water needs. They also store well. I have had very different degrees of success with not only production but also resistance to disease or insects depending on the variety, so my suggestion is to try many different varieties to find the ones that work for you. Like other tubers loose soil is essential for good yields. Cutting off flowers and preventing fruit from forming can direct more energy to tuber production but I never bother with this because it would deprive my garden of more flowers.
There are bitter potato varieties that are freeze-dried through a sepcific process that make them safe to eat and are called chuno. There are both black and white varieties, the following is the processing methods told to me by a farmer who makes them in Peru. Both varieties begin by being left out over night until a good freeze has occured (typically in June). Black chuno are then trampled to remove water and left out in the sun for 1-2 weeks, after this they will store for up to five years. White chuno are gathered in the morning after freezing and transported to stagnant water. They are submerged on a layer of straw for 1-2 weeks, sun-dried for three days, and can store for up to two years. These processing methods can be avoided by eating a specific kind of clay with the bitter potatoes, making them harmless.
Because potatoes are a prime target for insects and disease I like to keep my potato bed as diverse as possible. Potatoes are weak when it comes to vegetative growth so I like to grow a lot of biomass-producing plants next to them to use as mulch. Mine sprout early in spring and grow until mid-summer. Varieties with good dormancy can be left in the ground until the following spring, but many will sprout and try to grow again before this. I could harvest in summer but I didn't like the idea of doing such heavy disturbance at a time of year when preserving moisture is so important. So I like the dormant varieties becuase then I can grow plants that need the entire growing season alongisde the potatoes and then harvest potaotes after first frost. At this point I'll replant seed potatoes immediately to sit in the ground until the following spring. The rest go inside to be eaten. This way the potatoes are basically perennials. With loose soil and some weeding/mulching I don't see why they wouldn't be able to survive at least a few years without being harvested
I have 3 or 4 varieties that work with this low-disturbance planting scheme and have survived year after year. One is a red fingerling, I believe it is Papa Cacho. This is the best yielding so far. Another is a round white variety, I think this is Papa Amarilla. This often just starts sprouting by harvest time but I just remove the sprouts and they are fine with this. One is small, spherical and very blue, possibly Blue Bolivian. This one barely produces but has survived. The final one is shaped like a rounded stone and is dark blueish. Not sure where this came from. These varieties also managed to survive one year when deer got into the potato plot and ate a lot of the potato leaves.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Suggested Varieties: 'Papa Cacho'
Photos: Solanum spp.
Edible: Tuber.
Propagation: Tuber.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Excellent potential as a spreading ground cover. The insects seem to enjoy its leaves. Seems to prefer cooler weather. Does a good job growing in between other plants.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: S. affinis.
Edible: Root, leaf, flower. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Coming soon.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Tuber, leaf, flower. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Tuber. CLIMBING
Conditions: Part shade to sun. Shelter from heat.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. 🔴
Notes: Another Andean root crop that forms tubers in the short days of fall, but in the right conditions this is one of the heaviest yielding. Often trellised to maximize yields but Lost Crops Of The Incas writes that in their native region they are usually allowed to sprawl and in Peru I never once saw a plant on a trellis.. Often planted alongisde potatoes and allowed to clamber on them. Sensitive to heat, leaves often getting burnt. May perform best in dappled shade. The leaves are edible but very peppery. Overall seems like a bad option for my climate and I haven't had any success with them.
Photos: T. tuberosum.
Edible: Rhizome, shoot, pith, inflorescence, seed. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Seed, rhizome. SPREADS AGGRESSIVELY
Conditions: Part shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: This is one of the most important perennial roots for temperate climates with enough water, I would put it right up there with the sunchoke. If the soil is moist enough and there is enough sun, this plant will grow and spread very easily. In the right conditions on a pond edge it is extremely competetive. A giant patch of this would go a long way towards food security. Rhizomes are the most significant harvest, eaten raw, dried, pounded, cooked. Sometimes peeled but not always, I think this is only neccessary when they are older. Shoots or the inside pith of the leaf base as well as immature inflorescence and flowers/pollen/seeds. Aside from the leaves, pretty much the entire plant is edible in some way. Common in the wild, often grows alongisde wapato, another important native root crop. Groundnut can be interplanted (so long as it is not submerged) to climb on the cattail.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Corm, shoot.
Propagation: Corm.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Basically the South American version of taro, grows very similarly. Leaf shape is different and so very easy to tell apart from taro. I grow it alongisde taro and achira and it seems to do well. If this is actually a practical crop in my climate remains to be seen, definitely a lower yield than Japanese taro.
🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: X. sagittifolium.
Edible: Leaf, seed. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Sun. Prefers warm soil to germinate. SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive, preferred. Stems and leaves fed to cows and pigs.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: My favorite seed to grow because it is straightforward and generates a lot of biomass for mulching. The seedlings start out very small but once they get going they don't stop! These plants produce tons of edible leaves and a giant inflorescence packed with dense, shiny seeds. The biggest drawback is how palatable the plant is to dear and other animals since it is not a grass like most other seed crops.
To the best of my knowledge amaranth was a staple crop of equal or greater importance to maize in many regions of America, but Spanish colonialists outlawed it due to its use in religious rituals. This is the reason everyone associates maize with native american agriculture but not amaranth, despite both being of central importance.
Best transplanted or if direct seeding, clear and loosen soil beforehand. When harvesting amaranth I like to leave a little bit of stem standing up in the ground, still attached to its roots. This will of course die but leaving the roots in the ground hfelps build structure within the soil while the stem provides some topographical diversity and insect habitat. The varieties with uproght flowering stalks are more productive but those with downard facing heads are more resiliant against hail storms and possibly wind.
There are varieties grown for seed and those grown for leaves. This species is a standard for seed production. Varieties grown for their seed have edible leaves too. These will usually have yellow or lighter colored seed. Varieties grown for their leaves do not make good seed for eating but the leaves are much more tender and palatable. These will usually have black seeds. A. tricolor is a species like this that I have grown for leaf production. It branches out nicely and has beautiful multi-colored leaves. The stem is lighter and of lower mulch quality than the seed producing varieties.
🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture.
Photos: Amaranthus spp.
Edible: Leaf, seed.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Sun. SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Coming soon.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Sun. SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: All reports indicate the leaves must be cooked. Gorgeous flowers, some reports of young inflorescence being used as a garnish but the specifics of that may depend on the variety.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Leaf, inflorescence.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Coming soon.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Leaf, seed.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Sun. SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: I haven't experimented too much with this plant but it doesn't like our hot summers.
Photos: F. esculentum.
Edible: Leaf, flower bud, seed. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Sun. SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive. Seeds/seedlings eaten by rodents. Entire plant fed to many animals. POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Coming soon.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture.
Photos: H. annuus.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Sun. SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Magnificent towering plants over 8 feet tall with edible leaves but the focus is usually on the stems which are used for fiber production or firewood. Putting aside the minor use as a vegetable (with protein rich leaves to boot), this plant has incredible potential for soil regeneration. These can be planted directly into bare, compacted soil and still grow beautifully without irrigation in my climate. The stems can grow to be as thick as amaranth stems and make absolutely perfect mulch. All this makes it an excellent choice for quickly regenerating poor soil.
The plants are quite tall and therefore make a natural companion for vining edibles. If they are not planted densely they are more likely to bend over from the wind, but few of them seem to break. And because the leaves are relatively small and stay close to the stem, this plant creates very little shade.
Kenaf varieties are generally categorized by how quickly they flower, although I do not pretend to understand the nuances of that scheme. But the general tradeoff is that earlier flowering types are less productive and grow to be shorter plants. If collecting seed be cautious with the dried pods as they can be prickly and painful.
I am excited to continue researching how they can be incorporated into regenerative food systems. The leaves of this plant can be eaten but H. sabdariffa is the standard for using as a vegetable and grows much smaller.
Photos: H. cannabinum.
Edible: Seed. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Sun. SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Seeds fed to turkeys and chickens.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: The food of ancient Roman gladiators! Barley is one of the oldest and most important cultivated crops. It is renowned for tolerating very harsh conditions where other grains simply won't grow. Now it has fallen out of favor because wheat and rice are generally preferred, but that doesn't mean it should be left out of the garden!
It seems to tolerate competition from other grasses and is generally flexible regarding soil conditions. This seems to be one of the few grains which can be direct seeded in uncultivated and relatively poor soil and still go on to produce. Not well, of course, but certainly something that may be valuable. I am still experimenting with methods for incorporating barley into a broader planting scheme. There are many hulless varieties that are easy to process at home. Great Lake Staple Seeds has a good selection.
Photos: H. vulgare.
Edible: Seed. CALORIE CROP
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Sun. Prefers warm soil to germinate. SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer resistant? Birds enjoy seeds?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Coming soon.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Shoot, fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting. CLIMBING
Conditions: Part shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer sensitive. Fruits fed to many animals.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A relative of the common kiwi but much hardier and produces smaller fruits with smooth skin. Most varieties need both a male and female to fruit (and not all males work with all females), but the Issai variety is self fertile. Self fertile varieties won't fruit as much but they may be easier to get started with. A vigorous climbing vine for sun. During hot and dry periods it seems the leaves may get burnt black but cutting it back works just fine in these situations. The shoots can also be eaten as a vegetable. A. deliciosa is the common kiwi with fuzzy skin.
Photos: A. arguta.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A large shrub, some can be under 6 feet tall. Excellent fruiting native for the backyard with limited space. A. obovalis and A. grandifolia are also grown for edible fruit, although they are larger.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: Amelanchier spp.
Edible: Shoots.
Propagation: Seed, cutting. SPREADS AGGRESSIVELY
Conditions: Shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Tips eaten.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: The king of wild vegetables in Korea! The young shoots from this incredibly thorny tree are an esteemed vegetable in spring (called dureup in Korean). Not only is it incredibly thorny but it also suckers vigorously so without active management it may quickly become a problem. That being said, it is valuable as a high quality, long-lived vegetable that will tolerate most soils and fairly deep shade. Cutting back the central branch may make it easier to manage and encourage branching for larger harvests. A. nudicaulis, wild sarsaparilla, is a small understory perennial with edible roots, shoots and berries.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: A. elata. A. nudicaulis.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: This species bears black fruit, A. arbutifolia bears red.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: A. melanocarpa.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A common understory fruit tree here in the northeast and less frequently browsed by deer in the wild (although the story in my neighborhood is quite different I'm sure). Requires two different trees to pollinate. A sucker cannot pollinate with a mother tree because they are genetically identical. The most tropical fruit available to us in temperate climates. Doesn't store very well, which is one reason it is never seen for sale despite how common it is. Although it is adapted to shade it prefers sun. Many suggest not planting it in full sun when young but I don't think that is a concern. Extremely valuable for its ability to spread and form large patches. I am curious how adaptable this tree is to temperate climates around the globe but most information is from the northeastern America.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: A. triloba.
Edible: Nut.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Nuts fed to pigs.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A large multistemmed shrub, can colonize. The 'Winkler' variety is self-fertile and supposedly improved over the species type. Easily grown. Small nuts but one of the most important native food plants.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: C. americana.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting. Cold stratify.
Conditions: Shade to sun. NITROGEN FIXER SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Often considered to be a prime permaculture plant for it's easy growth even in partial shade, nitrogen fixation, and fruit production. And totally deer resistant even when young! What more could you ask for? I have a few of these planted around the garden both for fruit and to help keep the soil productive. Pruning will help release some of the nitrogen back into the soil but this is not necessary as they will improve the soil either way.
There are other bushes/trees that fill a similar niche of being nitrogen fixing, easy to grow and producing edible fruit but as far as I can tell none of the others are self-fertile like the species in this genus. So for that reason I like the goumi, plus it doesn't have thorns either. The berries can be produced on relatively young plants that are less than 4 feet high. They are very tart and have big seeds but I don't mind eating them. E. umbellata is the autumn olive which has the same nitrogen fixing and edible properties. Both are self fertile so they couldn't be any simpler!
Photos: E. multiflora.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Sun. DROUGHT TOLERANT
Wildlife: Deer resistant?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: The plant famously used as a medicinal tea by mormon pioneers. Thin stems form bushy mounds well adapted to dry and sunny conditions. Produces small edible berries that are medicinally active as well. To make tea just throw some stems into a cup and cover with hot water. Many other species in this genus with edible and medicinal value. Mine have died, don't ask me why.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: Ephedra spp.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. DROUGHT TOLERANT
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: I love how easy figs are to grow and propagate. Plant them right into your lawn on a sunny spot and they will do just fine. And propagation is as easy as placing a cutting into some moist soil and waiting for roots to grow. Fig trees are easy to prune and keep small so they make great backyard options. They also produce calorie-dense fruits relative to other temperate options. Be careful of irritating sap.
Some varieties can function as die back perennials in Z6 and still produce fruit. Here in Z7 it seems the hardy varieties like chicago survive winter just fine (although may sprout late and tips may die). Young fig trees are sensitive to deer but older ones seem to be largely left alone and are a low priority. F. palmata is the wild fig which won't produce fruit here and a supposedly hardy selection did not survive winter.
Suggested Varieties: 'Chicago Hardy'
Photos: F. carica.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Division., seed. Cold stratify. GROUNDCOVER
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive, preferred. Fruits fed to many animals.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: Say goodbye to the fat hybrid strawberries you're used to and say hello to our native species! Wild strawberries produces small, tasty fruits and are much more suited for our climate. A few different species of wild strawberry in this genus. This is the standard native species and spreads quickly once established. The big caveat is that it needs low competition and soil that doesn't dry out for too long.
F. vesca, the woodland strawberry, is another wild species and has both native and non-native forms. There may or may not be a distinction with the F. alpina species as they are grouped together nowadays and both are refered to as alpine strawberries. Generally these are considered not to spread by stolon as much. The truth is it really just depends on the form. I have grown one that spreads by stolon almost as much as the virginiana species (although the growth is not as vigorous), whereas some never produce any runners at all and just form clumps. I suspect there is more genetic diversity among these woodland or alpine strawberries than meets the eye. They all do fine in shade but fruit better when getting enough sun. An excellent groundcover.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture.
Photos: F. virginiana.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting. Cold stratify.
Conditions: Shade to sun. Rich soil.
Wildlife: Deer resistant?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Many exciting species in this genus that are unfortunately rarely included in the edible garden. They range from small shrubs to small trees, all preferring rich and acidic soil like the blueberry. Are generally selective about conditions and more difficult than the average fruit.
G. procumbens is the classic American native. G. miqueliana is Japanese wintergreen. G. yunnanensis and G. wardii may be interesting cold hardy additions as well.
The genus Pernettya is used by some nurseries for designating plants but I believe it has been recently merged with this one. Still, it is useful as plants in the Pernettya genus with edible berries should be eaten with care. This is because some species are said to cause inebriation or other mental impairment when eaten in quantity. I haven't seen any documented cases of this happening but I also imagine there are very few people who eat these berries regularly and in large enough quantities to know what the effects are. P. prostrata and P. furens may be semi hardy options although I have not had any survive winters here. I will keep looking.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: Pernettya spp.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Coming soon.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Tips eaten.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: In the honeysuckle genus and this is where the common name comes from. Needs two compatible plants to fruit. Very easily grown in sun or part shade and doesn't seem to need much water either. One of the few deer resistant fruiting shrubs. Native to North America and other locations, but as far as I know none of the cultivated varieties originated here.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: L. caerulea.
Edible: Fruit, leaf.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Goji berries are a nutritional powerhouse and one of the easier fruits to grow from seed. The seeds are simple because they don't require any form of treatment or cold stratification and have fairly good germination rates. Green cuttings also root easily in water. That being said it is not high on my list for fruit production.
The plant will typically take the form of a sprawling bush but can look different depending on the variety and how it is pruned. Older branches can have thorns. The leaves can be eaten as well, giving it another wonderful use as a vegetable crop. There are many forms but few available here in the states. Some have larger and more tender leaves making them better for eating. And some of the improved forms have sweeter berries. Mine has a problem with mildew on the leaves, perhaps because it is not in completely full sun or it's too humid here.
Photos: L. barbarum.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Rarely cultivated but increasing in popularity due to the development of self-fertile forms. Produces small red fruits that supposedly taste like mulberries and figs. I have heard these trees are very slow to bear fruit. When mature they should grow to about 15 or 20 feet tall.
They are often grafted onto osange orange rootstock to prevent them from suckering and becoming a thicket. I imagine the graft also improves cold hardiness. I have a grafted tree but I think the standard would be preferable, thickets are awesome after all and very productive. And the fact that is grows very easily like the mulberry makes it one of my favorites.
M. pomifera is the native, inedible and very thorny osange orange often used as a hedge.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: M. tricuspidata.
Edible: Fruit, leaf.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer sensitive, preferred. Fruits fed to many animals.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Huge trees that can grow over 50 feet tall with incredible production of sweet berries. When ripe they fall from the tree after shaking the branches. I am always finding mulberry seedlings in my garden and they can get very weedy. I rip them up when I can but older ones can be cut down repeatedly for mulch.. One of the wonderful qualities of this species is how fast it grows practically anywhere and how quickly it bears fruit.
I do not have the ability to grow such a huge tree in my backyard so I have instead opted for a dwarf variety, of which there are plenty to choose from. They still grow quickly and easily, they still bear heavily, but many grow less than 10 feet tall making them easy to manage. Edible Landscaping has the best selection. I am growing the Japanese variety 'Issai' and a weeping dwarf variety. The weeping variety is turning into a long and frustrating project because I don't like staking trees but the branches only want to grow directly down and onto the ground. In my experience these respond well to pruning.
There is a common black-fruiting tree called 'Dwarf Everbearing' that is not actually a dwarf tree, do not believe what you read online. The amount of websites and nurseries that claim this plant is a dwarf tree is just astounding. I believe what you are actually buying is a repackaged 'Illinois Everbearing' tree that grows to 30+ feet. It can be kept short and still produce fruit but that means you will have to heavily prune it every year.
M. alba is the white mulberry and M. rubra is the red mulberry. Young leaves of the white mulberry have a long history of being cooked and eaten. The Encyclopedia Of Edible Plants Of North America writes that most species have edible leaves, but to me that is not very convincing. Native American Ethnobotany doesn't mention native american tribes eating the leaves of any species.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: Morus spp.
Edible: Leaf, fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting. CLIMBING
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Vining native with large watery fruits, only pulp is eaten. Leaves are a sedative.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Tips eaten.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: The hardiest citrus tree and practically the only one that can be grown naturally in my climate. It is not very popular because, as the name implies, the fruit is bitter and not as palatable as those grown in more tropical climates. But it can still be used as an alternative to lemon juice, and it's the best you're going to get in this climate. Grows into a small, compact tree with large thorns.
I have looked into other hardy citrus trees, mainly from Japan, but they are a bit harder to find and I don't think any are as cold hardy. The Yuzu citrus tree, C. ichangensis x C. reticulata var. austera, is cold hardy and readily available but I doubt it would survive here in Z7 without protection.
Photos: P. trifoliata.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive, preferred.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A reliable fruit tree native to America and a genus with many other species to choose from depending on what you are looking for. Most are also small so they are perfect for the backyard garden. This species is the classic wild American plum and can form dense patches over time.
P. maritama, the beach plum, is also a short tree good for limited space. P. tomentosa is the nanking cherry, a beautiful shrub great for small spaces with tart fruit. Seems to appreciate well-draining soil. Needs two to fruit. P. japonica is the Korean bush cherry, similar to the nanking cherry but less productive and is self-fertile unlike the nanking. These bush cherries strike me as valuable for tight spaces, especially if pruned. P. mume is the famous ume apricot used in Japan for traditional ume-infused liquor umeshu and pickled ume umeboshi. It should not be eaten raw, both for health and flavor reasons. Also included is the apricot, P. armeniaca. I have a Chinese sweet kernel variety which blooms later and so is less likely to be damaged by frost. It was the first fruit tree I planted and so far it has been doing great. P. persica is the peach. Overall this genus is a goldmine with tons of different options! The flowers are edible in small quantities.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: P. americana. P. tomentosa. P. maritama.
Edible: Nut.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: One of the greatest food producing plants of temperate climates is undoubtedly the oak. Acorns were relied on as a staple food by many (if not all) ancient human communities in its native range. I have no doubt it will once again be relied on as our civilization collapses. Oaks support an incredible array of insects, fungi and wildlife and may be the most important wild food for our region. When I think about plants that can practically feed human communities, it is hard to beat oaks. Black walnut, alongside chestnuts and hazelnuts to a lesser degree, were also native foods of primary importance but oaks are far more common.
They practise gymnastic exercises, both as heavy-armed soldiers, and cavalry, also boxing, running, skirmishing, and fighting in bands. For two-thirds of the year the mountaineers feed on the acorn, which they dry, bruise, and afterwards grind and make into a kind of bread, which may be stored up for a long period.
From The Geography Of Strabo. The fact that acorns have to be leached is their single greatest drawback, and if not for this they would surely be the king of wild food. Wth a stream nearby this is very easy, without one it is more laborious. The Dawn Of Everything makes the case for acorns' inability to be eaten unprocessed as having signifcant benefits as well. It allows for communities to store large quantities of nutrient dense food that are unnapealing to raiding groups. Since acorn processing is often done as needed, any theft would still entail large amounts of work, unlike nuts that can be eaten raw or other already processed foods which would be more appealing. All of our foraging and farming habits have extensive and often unseen political consequences.
This species grows as a shrub and the relatively sweet acorns make it a great choice for the backyard garden. It is one of the smaller oaks. Related to the larger Q. muehlenbergii, both are white oaks, the group with the tastiest acorns and lowest tannnins. Dozens of others.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos:
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer sensitive. Fruits fed to many animals.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: One of my favorite berries and very easy to grow in this climate. This species is the classic red raspberry. It has a perennial root system that send up new canes every fall, which fruit the next year before dying. There are also everbearing varieties with canes that fruit twice before dying. Many are thornless and I prefer those just because they are easier to manage, but the thorned varieties are more vigorous and more deer-resistant. Deer will eat the tops of non-thorny varieties and even thorny varieties will have their leaves stripped off. A thicket of thorny raspberries/blackberries would keep the inside safe from deer.
After observing how aggressive a thorny variety is I think it could be an excellent option for battling invasives. It covers ground very well and can kill other plants by climbing on them and blocking out sunlight. Natives that can actually out compete invasives and also produce food!? Sounds like a good idea to me.
The thimbleberry, R. parviflorus, barely fruits at all but doesn't have any thorns, grows taller and the canes don't die back. I planted 3 or 4 of these and only 1 survived in partial shade and poor, dry soil. Seems to dislike heat. The Japanese wineberry, R. phoenicolasius, is an extremely thorny scrambling bush although it can be trellised. This one is invasive and easy to forage for. R. fruticosus is the blackberry.
There are also groundcovers with modest fruiting like R. calycinoides, the Taiwanese creeping raspberry. It is small and not the most productive crop but covers ground well. R. nepalensis, the Nepalese raspberry, is also a ground cover but with larger fruits. This one is less common but worth more testing. Many others.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: R. idaeus. R. calycinoides. R. parviflorus.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: This species is black currant, R. rubrum is red currant. Shade tolerant.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: Ribes spp.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Elderberry is an excellent regeneration tree for a few reasons. The quick growth is the most obvious. This is probably the easiest and fastest growing fruit tree I have trialed. It is very tolerant of soil and sun. It also spreads by suckers easily, creating patches of shade. And of course because it grows so quickly you can harvest a good deal of mulch from it every year. Finally don't forget it is a native with edible fruits so it will attract birds and insects. Partially self-fertile depending on the form, may need two.
Because it has such tenacious qualities, I am exploring the possibility of planting fruit or vegetable vines nearby which can then use the tree as a trellis. I think this may work well.
This particular species grows wild in my area but there are many others. Unfortunately it is not generally regarded as safe to eat the raw berries more than a few at a time. However they are perfectly safe when made into jams or wines and so this is an excellent way to use them. If you are hesitant about growing a fruit tree, start with this one! It will boost your confidence!
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: S. canadensis.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting. CLIMBING
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A fast growing-vine that produces edible, medicinal berries now regarded as an important adaptogen as well. A good candidate for climbing on an old bush you don't need as it can grow quite large.
Photos: S. chinensis.
Edible: Leaf, fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting. Scarify and soak seed before planting. CLIMBING
Conditions: Part shade.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: As far as I am aware, this is the only genus of gourds with species that can grow as a perennial in my climate. A perennial, cold hardy gourd! That's pretty amazing. The palm-sized fruit can be eaten when young and green as a vegetable or allowed to ripen for the sweet pulp. Young leaves can also be eaten as a vegetable. Grows as a die-back vine, likes to clamber or climb.
I think this plant has amazing potential for the forest garden because in temperate climates there is absolutely nothing else like it. It also seems to grow well in fairly deep shade and is low maintenance. In summer any leaves in sun will have trouble and be really droopy. You will need both a male and female plant to produce fruit. So that means you'll have to grow out at least 3 seedlings to have a good chance. That being said I have yet to see any flowers on my plant.
T. pilosa is another species that is likely cold hardy (I haven't grown it yet). Plants For Human Consumption writes the following:
Fruits may be edible (tanaka).
Not exactly reasurring. T. dioica may be hardy as well but there is little information available. Related to the annual snake gourd, T. cucumerina.
Photos: T. kirilowii.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Shade to sun. Rich soil.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive. Fruits fed to many animals.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: This is the higbush species, more productive and better suited for warmer climates. V. angustifolium is the lowbush blueberry, which as the name implies grows much shorter and smaller, as well as being less productive. I see this growing in openings in the canopy in a nearby forest, benefiting from the cooler microclimate, forming somewhat large colonies.
V. gaultheriifolium is the chinese blueberry. I planted this but it didn't survive winter here. V. vitus-idaea is the lingonberry. V. caespitosum is the dwarf bilberry. These and more are somehwat cold hardy and have edible fruit.
All prefer rich, acidic soil but I think making sure they are planted in moist soil and feeding them plenty of garden debris or compost will help keep them happy.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: V. corymbosum. V. gaultheriifolium.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Seed, cutting.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A medium-sized thorny tree that is very tolerant of poor soils. Fruits are often dried or processed and may serve as an important source of calories. Partially self-fertile.
Photos: Z. jujuba.
Edible: Leaf, flowering stem, flower
Propagation: Division, seed. May be difficult from seed.
Conditions: Sun. Well-draining soil. DROUGHT TOLERANT
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Not all species are edible. Even varieties that are supposedly hardy below Z7 need very well draining soil at all times of the year, especially winter. Does not survive in a pot over winter.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: Agave spp.
Medicinal: Leaf.
Propagation: Division.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. DROUGHT TOLERANT
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: This plant has been moved to its own genus, Aristaloe, but it is often still refered to as a kind of aloe. This species is said to be used on the skin and I believe the original source for this is The Aloes Of South Africa:
Mr. Frank Brownlee, Magistrate at Mount Ayliff, East Griqualand, in March 1925, records (in litt.): "It is an interesting fact that the juice of this plant mixed with water is sometimes used by the natives for washing their bodies. The washing is said to have a tonic and refreshing effect on the system."
It is diluted in water before application but in what ratio I do not know. Unfortunately I have not found any other sources that discuss the medicinal application of this species outside of research papers that are only analyzing certain compounds within the plant. These, of course, cannot be used to deduce the safeness of the plant as a whole.
But given that this species is potentially very cold hardy and may have similar effects to common aloe (although applied differently), I believe it is worth more research. It could be a local, sustainable source of natural skin moisturizer. Does not survive in a pot over winter.
A. vera is the standard and is easily grown indoors. The leaf gel of this more common species can be eaten (although bitter when raw) or used on skin for wounds, burns or simply as a moisturizer.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Fruit.
Propagation: Division, seed. May be difficult from seed.
Conditions: Sun. Well-draining soil. DROUGHT TOLERANT
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Low growing cactus with yellow edible fruits, forms dense mats when mature. Can tolerate being covered in snow. Easily propogated from cuttings or division. Does not survive in pot over winter.
Photos: M. poeppigi.
Edible: Pad, fruit.
Propagation: Pad, seed. May be difficult from seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. Well-draining soil. DROUGHT TOLERANT SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: The most well-known edible cactus still cultivated for its pads and fruit. The fruits can be eaten fresh (after removing glochids, see below) while the pads must be cooked. This species is small enough that you can eat older pads but larger species are typically only harvested when pads are young. Resilient, easy and an underutilized vegetable here in the sates.
When considering this plant, it is important to understand the difference between spines and glochids. Most forms have spines, these are the large and sharp needles that stab you. Some forms are spineless, and these are what I prefer to cultivate as it makes my life easier and they are less dangerous in the garden. However, I am not aware of any forms for any species that do not have any glochids. Glochids are invisible barbed hairs that are found all over the pads and fruit. Touching them can be mildly painful although they are usually easy to pull out if it's only a few. Because of this, even if the form is spineless it is still not safe to touch the cactus. Use thick gloves or preferably tongs when handling cacti in this genus. After harvesting, thoroughly wash and scrub every inch of the cactus or fruit to remove the glochids. They are also removed through cooking but I would still be sure to do it beforehand as well.
This species is a standard in cultivation. It survives the cold by releasing some of the water stored in its pads before freezing weather arrives. The pads become shriveled, preventing them from freezing. This is healthy and they will perk back up come spring time. O. cacanapa has larger pads, doesn't shrivel and is less cold hardy. It died over winter in a pot, I doubt it would survive even in the ground. It is also a lighter blue color which is pretty. O. stricta may also be suitable for cold winters but I haven't tested it. Many other cold hardy species used for food. Pads can be rooted easily, best to get these or live plants.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: O. humifosa. O. cacanapa.
Edible: Stem, leaf.
Propagation: Seed. GROUNDCOVER
Conditions: Part shade to sun. DROUGHT TOLERANT
Wildlife: Deer resistant?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: A weedy low-growing plant that should self-sow in the right conditions. Extremely resilient, they can be found growing out of cracks in concrete. Good groundcover for sun and dry soil. The taste is nice but the texture is a bit too mucilaginous for me, at least when raw. Thoreou appreciated the plant, in Walden he writes:
I have made a satisfactory dinner, satisfactory on several accounts, simply off a dish of purslane (Portulaca oleracea) which I gathered in my cornfield, boiled and salted.
Of course this would be a very low calorie meal and is not sound nutritional advice in the long term. Persoanlly, as far as edibe sedums go, I think the perennial and tasty dolnamul is the way to go.
Photos: P. oleracea.
Edible: Stem, leaf.
Propagation: Division, stem. GROUNDCOVER
Conditions: Shade to sun. DROUGHT TOLERANT
Wildlife: Deer resistant?
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Many resources claim that all sedums are edible. This may in some sense be technically true but it is not at all useful. Do not regularly eat a plant that has no history of being eaten! However there are a good number of species that have a documented history of being used as food. This species is one of the more common ones and a popular vegetable in Korea. Best in spring when it is less bitter and at this point it is often eaten raw. In early spring it has a superb, fresh taste and makes for a high quality vegetable. Can be added to salads. In the summer it gets more bitter and may be better cooked.
Very easy to grow in sun or partial shade. It is fine with dry soil but appreciates some regular water. Well-suited for growing in pots or hanging over edges. One of my favorite groundcovers. I have not had any problems with this spreading too much despite what I've read.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: S. sarmentosum.
Edible: Shoots.
Propagation: Division.
Conditions: Shade to sun. Shelter from heat.
Wildlife: Deer resistant?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: The canes of this species reach a diameter of 1.25" which is about as large as it gets for cold-hardy, edible clumping bamboo species. There are not many references to this species being edible and it's not as commonly used for food as other bamboos. Bamboos: A Gardener's Guide To Their Cultivation In Temperate Climates does indicate it is edible though. C. gigantea is also noteworthy as it produces one of the densest and thickest (1.75") canes of all cold hardy clumping bamboos. However it does spread more than other clumping bamboos and does not seem to be edible.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Shoots.
Propagation: Division.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant?
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: This clumping species should be one of the easier bamboos to cultivate in temperate climates. The canes reach a respectable diameter of 1". No clumping bamboo is going to provide as good of a harvest as a running bamboo in temperate climates, but it's better than nothing! And of course all bamboo species are great for using around the garden or generating mulch.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Shoots.
Propagation: Division, spore.
Conditions: Shade to part shade. Wet soil. Woodland.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: Consume in moderation and always prepare according to traditional methods, may be harmful in large quantities. Unfurled shoots only. This is the standard edible fern in America and the easiest to source. Ferns add a lot of elegance to the edible garden. It seems like they have the potential to shade out fishmint which could be really valuable. M. orientalis can also be eaten the same way.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Shoots.
Propagation: Division, spore.
Conditions: Shade to part shade. Wet soil. Woodland.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: Consume in moderation and always prepare according to traditional methods, may be harmful in large quantities. Unfurled shoots only. Another beautiful fern. O. cinnamomea is eaten the same way.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: O. cinnamomea
Medicinal: Root, leaf.
Propagation: Division, seed. May be difficult from seed.
Conditions: Shade to part shade. Woodland.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: One of the most sought after and expensive native American medicinals. Roots take years to form into a good size for harvesting. Good plant for shady understory, can be interplanted with ramps and wild ginger.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Stem, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant?
Status: Potted. ✅
Notes: A houseplant for me but I love it so much that I wanted to include it. And it is certainly worthy of more cultivation not only for its medicinal properties but also for the wonderful flavor! The leaves of this Peruvian plant can be used as a spice or garnish and taste like licorice-citrus-mint-pepper-refreshing-zesty. Hard to describe but wonderful. So far it is one of the better tasting peperomias from what I can tell. Chewing the leaves is also said to be good for oral hygiene. Cut stems root easily in water.
P. peruviana is also chewed for oral hygene but is slow growing and difficult to cultivate. All are grown indoors for me. Many others in this genus are important medicinals as well.
Photos: P. congona.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Division, seed. GROUNDCOVER
Conditions: Shade to part shade. Woodland.
Wildlife: Deer resistant?
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Something of a medicinal pancea and and one of my favorite groundcovers for shade or sun. This is one of those plants where if you need a ground cover but are not sure what to use, just give this a try. The leaves can be eaten (probably best in small quantities) which makes it easier to use. They aren't particularly tasty but I can imagine throwing a few into soup just as an easy way to get your medicine. Surprisingly tolerant of dry soil. It spreads easily but stays so low that it gets outcompeted by many other plants in my garden. Gorgeous flowers.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: P. vulgaris.
Medicinal: Root.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. Woodland.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Coming soon.
Photos: Coming soon.
Support: Nitrogen, mulch.
Propagation: Seed, division.
Conditions: Shade to sun. NITROGEN FIXER SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer resistant?
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: Nitrogen fixing woody shrub that spreads by suckers. Valuable for soil regeneration and generating mulch. Roots extend at least a few feet underground. Can colonize and dominate but this is why I love it.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus. 🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture. 🦍 Guerrilla plant.
Photos: Coming soon.
Support: Nitrogen, groundcover.
Propagation: Seed. GROUNDCOVER
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows. NITROGEN FIXER SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive. Attracts bunnies.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: An easy way to plant a living mulch and fix nitrogen. T. pratense is less common, a slightly larger perennial with red flowers. T. incarnatum is the crimson species, a tall and showy annual also with red flowers. They all work well as nitrogen-fixing groundcovers. Which one to grow depends on whether you want an annual or perennial. The perennial species are great for meadows or fields. I think the white species is a good default and an excellent choice for pathways or as an amendment to lawns. A patch of clover will attract bunnies, they often leave droppings so I consider it a very worthwhile trade!
Photos: Coming soon.
Support: Mulch, shade.
Propagation: Division.
Conditions: Shade to sun. SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer resistant?
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: This is the hardiest species of banana. It doesn't produce edible fruit but I think it has excellent potential for generating mulch. The leaves are huge and the plant can grow 15 feet tall when fully mature. Forms clumps which can be divided. Banana leaves and stems will also break down slower than those of other herbacious plants.
Best in a spot sheltered from wind as heavy gusts can tear the leaves and bend the top down. There are some growing in an open spot in my neighborhood and every year they look absolutely terrible after the first heavy winds. Seems to appreciate shelter from heat.
I am unsure if this should be considered truly hardy in my climate. Harsh winters may kill individual plants or set back a clump of five or six shoots to only a few the following spring. Small plants that have not had enough time to establish are unlikely to survive winters here. Most of the ones I see in my area are next to a house in full sun.
Photos: M. basjoo.
Support: Mulch, shade.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅ Plant More. ✨
Notes: One of the fastest growing trees in the world. It can grow over 10 feet in a single season, providing large leaves and wood for mulching. When fully mature the tree gets very tall so it may be easiest to manage when cut back to the ground every fall. This way it acts as an herbaceous perennial which is very cool. This could be planted in vegetable beds and shaped as needed to provide shade during summer. The leaves have high concentrations of nitrogen making it an excellent chop and drop plant.
If planting in the backyard I would recommend putting it somewhere where it can be easily mowed over should the time come when management become less intensive. There are a few different varieties to choose from if you're looking to grow it from seed. This tree has incredible potential for creative integration into the permaculture landscape.
The photo below shows some leaves of this tree being used to cover food scraps in the compost. I love using them like this. I'm sure there are many creative ways to use this plant.
🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture.
Photos: P. tomentosa. ↴
Support: Mulch.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS SOIL REGENERATION
Wildlife: Deer sensitive. Leaves fed to many animals.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Comfrey forms mounds of big fuzzy leaves. The real wonder of this plant is its deep roots which help cycle nutrients from lower down in the ground back to the topsoil when the leaves are mulched. Many varieties produce fertile seed and are known to spread aggressively. However 'Bocking 14' is a sterile variety and for that reason is quite common. I grow this one right by my compost pile, the idea being that its roots will catch some of the nutrients draining off into the soil. Because this variety is sterile is must be transplanted, by root fragment or preferably crown.
🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture.
Photos: S. uplandicum.
If you would learn to be subservient to the king you would not have to live on lentils. -Aristippus
If you would learn to live on lentils you would not have to be subservient to the king. -Diogenes
My ideal form of storage for root crops is none at all - allowing plants to remain in the ground until they are ready to be eaten. I also actively select for plants that can stay alive as long as possible so I don't need to worry about storing them and can instead harvest them as needed.
Basic method is as follows. Brush off excess dirt but do not scrub with water. Cure and allow skin to dry out a bit in a dark place. Store in breathable bag or box in a cool and humid environment. A cellar is best and that is typically the environment we are trying to imitate. Try your basement. If the roots do not store very well or if the storage area is too dry, I will put them in a bag or shallow containers with coco coir that has been slightly moistoned. Sand or wood shavings may also work. Ensure medium remains moist enough that roots do not dry out but aerated enough that mold does not grow (a problem with deep containers). Check on roots regularly. I do this mainly for achira but will work for most roots.
Aside from roots the rest is fairly simple. Seeds and storage gourds should be kept in a dark and dry environment. Leafy vegetables can be stored in a similar environment to roots or wrapped in a slightly moist cloth and refrigerated. Other methods of storage like drying or fermenting can signficantly expand the lifespan of many vegetables.
They insist upon no government higher than that of the individual, while they leave in existence those causes which imperatively demand, and will always demand so long as they exist, the intervention of just such restrictive governments as we now have.
-Stephen Pearl Andrews
These are some of the self-assembled equipment I use in the garden. I typically look for simple solutions that are relatively cheap and can be replicated easily.
Deer Fencing | Photos
Metal fencing, tent stakes, caribeeners.
This is the setup I use for most of my trees to protect them from deer. Steel welded-wire fencing that is 5-6 feet tall is wrapped in a circle around the tree. Cheap carabiners keep the fencing clasped shut (I use 2-3 per fence). Tent stakes hold the fencing down - place them right next to where the fence closes and directly opposite this point on the other side of the fence. You may need 2 or 3 in each spot depending on the soil. This keeps the fence in place but also allows us to undo the clasps and open it up for maintenance. Two posts can be placed around the interior and attached to the fence for extra stability. This is a good idea if the fencing is being used to section off an area of the garden but not always neccessary when wrapped around trees. I like this fencing system because it is very straightforward and can be assembled or taken apart quickly. This system is not designed for animals that will push up against the fence or otherwise mess with it (whereas deer are typically very gentle).
Germination Tray | Photos
Shallow tub, metal caging.
I like using large, shallow containers for germinating seeds as I find them easier to work with than individual pots (although I use those too). I drill some holes in the bottom so water can drain out and then fill them with soil. If I need to keep track of different seeds, I can sow them in lines and use handwritten labels. Then I will place a metal cage over it to prevent rodents or birds from digging around in the soil. I use the kind that attaches to guinea pig or hamster enclosures but anything similar will work. These can often be found used on craigslist and are a good investment (if they come with a tray that can hold a few inches of soil all the better). In the spring or fall they can be out in the sun but in the summer I like to keep them in the shade so seedlings don't get burned and the soil stays moist.
Deep Root Bed | Photos
Concrete Blocks
I have found cinder blocks or similar concrete blocks to be the easiest and best way to create small but tall raised beds for taproots. They don't degrade like wood, don't shed microplastics and don't get very hot even in the sun. Cement blocks are also typically very cheap or free if you can find people in the neighborhood who don't need them. I use these primarily for yams as the walls can be easily deconstructed to pull the fragile tuber out. They can also be used for plants like burdock or silverweed which are hard to dig up. I prefer a raised bed rather than making a giant hole in the ground trying to dig the deep roots up and potentially disturbing nearby plants. The one drawback is that the soil will dry out much faster aboveground so I try to fill them with soil high in organic matter or put logs/leaves inside. The walls are thicker than they need to be but also provide insulation to the plants inside especially when the holes are filled with leaves.
The farmer who works the earth merely loves the thought of himself laboring in the fields... if your love for nature is superficial and what you do amounts simply to making use of farming for your own purposes, the road will be closed off to you....
-Masanobu Fukuoka
Highlites from some of the gardens I've visited in other countries.
Thailand | Food Forest [Photos 2023]
I visited Seven Baskets Farm while staying in Chiang Rai, Thailand. A translator accompanied me to visit the food forest and one of (if not the) largest collections of yams in Southeast Asia. A few primitive but comfortable huts sat atop the hill and overlooked steep slopes dappled with fruit trees and edible vegetation. The forest was beautifully wild and yet still very productive. As we walked, the gardener behind the forest pointed out many wild plants and explained their edible and medicinal properties. He calls his garden Seven Baskets Farm as it represents the seven food crops of primary importance to sustaining ancient populations in the region. Most notably it included both yams and taro, further cementing in my mind the significance of perennial root crops in human diets.
Observing the countless species of yams planted on both trellises and climbing nearby trees was particularly useful to me as the similar Chinese Yam can grow as a perennial in my climate. Many can grow very large and have excellent storage properties. The primary difficulty I observed was digging them up; they must be excavated so as not to pierce the flesh and ruin their storage abilities. If you've grown Chinese yam this will all sound very familiar. Many were planted on slopes, and given the need for heavy soil disturbance and ultimately erosion in this circumstance, I personally would rather have them planted in flat ground. Although tropical yams can have very large aerial tubers, making any digging unnecessary if you were so inclined.
Down the hill was the rice field. The rice was transplanted normally into an average looking field no greater than a 1/2 acre split into 4 different smaller sections, each outlined by a shallow basin. This was enough to keep him fed the entire year. But the magic comes after this, when the fields are irrigated by diverting a nearby stream. And with the water that fed the crops came fish who fertilized the rice fields while it was flooded. Unfortunately I arrived during the dry season, the wrong time of year to see this. When the fields are ready to be drained, an opening on the opposite end of the field allowed the water and all the fish within it to return back into the stream's path and into further water catchment systems.
Taiwan | Urban Gardens [Photos 2023]
Taipei is one of the most beautiful and hip cities I've had the pleasure of visiting, even in the center you are never too far from the most bizzarely placed but stunning plant arrangements. The botanic garden is one of the best I've seen, a lush forest whose wildness betrays all the care that must have gone into it. A short bus ride from the city and a hike is all that is needed to see small terraced vegetable gardens surrounded by trees and native vegetation. I spotted both taro and canna growing on the edges of gardens with more cultivated beds dedicated to mustards and beans.
Peru | Tubers & Terraces [Photos 2024]
I visited Cusco for a week of plant exploration alongisde a local agronimist because of all the incredible crops that originated in the area. Some that I grow including potatoes, achira, achocha and amaranth. And some that are of interest to me but haven't adapted well to my climate incuding oca, mashua, ulloco, and arracacha. I had hoped to see mauka but would have had to travel much farther north as no closer growers could be located. I was also fortunate enough to see wild relatives of mashua, achocha, tomato, strawberry and arracacha as well as some medicinal peperomia and trichocereus growing in terrace walls. The flora there is simply incredible.
I arrived in March, right in the middle of their long growing season from September-May. Some of the most impressive gardens were found on the side of the road. I was particularly interested in seeing tuber and grain polycultures. One field consisted of potato, mashua and ulloco all growing alongisde each other with a healthy dose of flowering weeds and the ocaasional leafy mustard. They were growing tarwi, a native legume, on the edge of the bed as well. Another had maize and quinoa intersperesed in a dense grouncover of fava beans surrounded by a border of flowering weeds. There were some beautiful fields of amaranth and quinoa interplanted as well. We visited a potato farm with a field that had 350 varieties of native potato, as well as a high elevation farm with 50 varieties of bitter potatoes. Improved potato varieties can yield 4-6 pounds per plant, native varieties 2-4 pounds and high-elevation bitter varieties 1-2 pounds (although are are more resistant to cold and pests). One day was spent hiking into the mountains past the biggest agave I've ever seen in serach of achia and arracacha. The achira was grown as an annual primarily for a local religious holiday, yielding roughly 5-7 pounds per plant. A gorgeous green-leaved, bright orange flowered variety seemed to be what all the local farmers were growing, not one I have seen offered in the states before. Nearby was a gardener who had an incredible patch of three different varieties of arracacha. The roots were quite large and when fully grown could also grow to roughly 5 pounds per plant. The soil here was very rich and the arracacha formed a lush groundcover.
I also visited a variety of terraces, many portions of them left to grow wild, the remaining used for maize, forage or fruit trees. The best part of the terraces were the plants growing in the rock crevices, taking advantage of the unique niche the stones created. One of the nicer terrace systems had year-round flowing water from a central channel that was diverted into each level of the terraces for irrigation. The stonework was a marvel of engineering, many portions still standing with little maintenence since their inception during the Inca empire.
Mexico | Chinampas [Photos 2024]
The floating gardens of the Aztecs were one of the most advanced agricultural systems on earth. A canoe ride through one of the main channels led to the garden I was visiting. They practiced biointensive methods, including techniques like mulching (you'd be suprised how rare this was), planting perennials and pollinator plants alongisde annual vegetables, and planting in polycultures. When I arrived it was the dry season, when mostly lettuce and various mustards are grown. Traditionally, during the dry season there were a variety of native grasses and plants grown for their seed. These are now considered low quality and seldom grown. The wet season is the main growing season, from March-September, when staples like maize and beans are grown.
The chinampas themselves are now a shadow of their former glory but still incorporate many traditional practices. The most obvious being the soil blocks used to start seeds. A single 'flat' of these was roughly 2,000 blocks and took about 7 hours to prepare and sow. The soil was dredged up from the bottom of the channel, rich in minerals and nutrients, and left out for a few days at most to dry. After sowing they are watered once a week only during the dry season. This sediment was also used to cover the beds which is why the soil looked so black and rich. When being created, the chinampas were built in layers, starting with sediment, then green vegetation (possibly forming some kind of sealed lining), wood (likely for strucuture and aeration), sediment, compost and finally a top layer of more sediment.
Like the traditional systems, some beds are surrounded by trees to stabilize the soil and prevent erosion, alongisde wooden stakes that line the perimeter. These used to be tied together at least in part by plants, forming a living fence. All these functions can be accomplished by willows here in the west. The waters in the chinampas are now fed by filtered wastewater, much to the chagrin of farmers and landowners. Aquatic plants contained in mesh filters were used to help clean the water directly surrounding the garden. Most aquatic plant help clean water and absorb heavy metals, so they should not be used for compost or mulch applied directly to vegetable beds if the water itself is not clean.
The most significant change in the chinampas is how large the garden beds are now. Traditionally they were small enough to be managed using tools while the gardeners stayed in the canoe. They were also raised only slightly abovee the level of the water, making irrigation unneccessary. Now they are massive and at least 3-4 feet above the level of water. The channels also once teemed with fish and aquatic life, further enriching the ecosystem. Now it is mostly invasive species aside from the plentiful lily pads which were apparently cooked and eaten in the past.
My favorite reference books that are not available for free online (some can only be purchased used). More books available for free online are in the resource section below. I'm still looking for a good Korean reference book, all the ones I have don't contain any latin. Photos of covers and sample pages.
Other reference books I like that are not available for free include the following: Edible Wild Plants Of The Prairie, The Book Of Herbal Wisdom, Ethnobotany And Useful Resource Plants Of Dokdo And Ulleung Island In Korea, and A Dictionary Of Japanese Food.
There seems to me too much misery in the world. I cannot persuade myself that a beneficent and omnipotent God would have designedly created the Ichneumonidæ with the express intention of their feeding within the living bodies of Caterpillars, or that a cat should play with mice... I feel most deeply that the whole subject is too profound for the human intellect. A dog might as well speculate on the mind of Newton. Let each man hope and believe what he can.
-Charles Darwin
Here I have compiled some of my favorite resources including databases for edible plants, blogs, books, nurseries, recipes and everything else that has been useful to my research.
Databases/Tables
Okayama University Plant Ecology
Korean Native Wildflower Research Institute
Inventory Of Perennial Vegetables
Wild Edible Plants Of Shangri-la
Wild Edible Plants Of Inner Mongolia
Soil Temperature Seed Germination
Wunderground Historical Weather
Websites/Blogs
Hiroyuki's Blog on Japanese Cooking
Online Reference Books
Sturtevant's Edible Plants Of The World
Useful Plants Of Neotropical Origin
Food Plants Of North American Indians
Uses Of Plants By Indians Of Missouri River Region
Dictionary Of Popular Names Of Economic Plants
Dictionary Of Economic Products Of India
Permaculture: A Designer's Manual
Long-Form Books
Will Bonsall's Essential Guide
Rainwater Harvesting for Drylands
Articles
Videos
Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind
Nurseries
Preperations
And men with hoses squirt kerosene on the oranges, and they are angry at the crime, angry at the people who have come to take the fruit. A million people hungry, needing the fruit- and kerosene sprayed over the golden mountains. And the smell of rot fills the country. Burn coffee for fuel in the ships. Burn corn to keep warm, it makes a hot fire. Dump potatoes in the rivers and place guards along the banks to keep the hungry people from fishing them out.
There is a crime here that goes beyond denunciation. There is a sorrow here that weeping cannot symbolize. There is a failure here that topples all our success. The fertile earth, the straight tree rows, the sturdy trunks, and the ripe fruit. And children dying of pellagra must die because a profit cannot be taken from an orange. And coroners must fill in the certificate- died of malnutrition- because the food must rot, must be forced to rot. The people come with nets to fish for potatoes in the river, and the guards hold them back; they come in rattling cars to get the dumped oranges, but the kerosene is sprayed. And they stand still and watch the potatoes float by... watch the mountains of oranges slop down to a putrefying ooze; and in the eyes of the people there is the failure; and in the eyes of the hungry there is a growing wrath. In the souls of the people the grapes of wrath are filling and growing heavy, growing heavy for the vintage.
- John Steinbeck
These are some plants I am interested in cultivating but have not found any sources for. If you are able to help it would be deeply appreciated!
Civilization functions through the reorganization of human communities around labor. Civilized communities are organized around forced labor, achieved through a hierarchy of power in which relatively few non-laboring individuals exploit a laboring population under threat of voilence. Non-civilized communities are absorbed and transformed to serve the purposes of the civilization.
Civilized communities create humans that are both mentally and physically ill. This illness is characterized by the integration of the mythology of civilization (private property, technological progress, hierarchy, labor, etc.) into the individual's belief system and expresses itself through behaviors that reinforce civilized communities despite ongoing harm to the individual's health. Symptoms of this sickness include improperly developed skulls and spines, reduced muscle mass, weakened chardiovascular system, malnutrition, chronic stress, social isolation, depression and a variety of other ailments. Even those non-laboring individuals which appear to benefit from this system suffer from the same sickness.
Civilized individuals believe civilized communities exist for their well-being. The symptoms they experience are considered unfortunate side effects of a flawed but ultimately beneficial system that can only be fixed through its further development and refinement. The value of labor is implicit while the improper organization of labor is presented as the problem. Efforts towards personal or communal liberation are redirected through a system that is antagonistic to it and individuals are therefore compelled to support the very conditions that are responsible for their illness.
Civilization removes the means by which humans can sustain themselves outside of it. The ownership and destruction of the surrounding ecosystem provides resources for civilized communities to survive and expand while simultaneously robbing those within it of the means to survive outside of it. This method of resource management is inherently unsustainable and civilization must therefore continue growing in order to survive. Knowledge on how to utilize natural resources is removed from civilized culture.
The domestication of certain plants unlocked previously impossible forms of social organization. It did not cause civilization, rather it merely made possible the peculiar form of civilized communities for the first time in human history. Before domestication, societies that practiced communal solidarity and self-sufficency were strongest. After domestication, societies organized around hierarchy and labor became even stronger, outcompeting all other forms of social orginization. There is no known form of social orginization that can defend itself from modern civilization without becoming one.
The organization of civilizations are refined and made more powerful by competition. This is how civilizations evolve, and is comparable to the evolution of group dynamics within other pack-forming species as a result of interaction between groups. These adaptations have allowed a system which exacts such impossibly heavy burdens from humanity to not only survive through every collapse but dominate our species.
Human liberation cannot be achieved within the context of civilization. The destruction of egalitarian human communities and their reorginization around forced labor are not flaws of civilization but precisely what it was designed for. Every known instance of civilization on earth has ended with its collapse and we are currently in the beginning of the collapse of the largest and most powerful civilization that has ever existed.
Resiliant human communities are composed of multiple layers of self-sufficiency. Outer layers improve the living conditions of inner layers while maintaining each layer's autonomy and self-sufficency, from the federation to the tribe to the household to the individual. Civilization destroys all forms of communal solidarity and self-sufficiency so as to create the lonely crowd phenomomenon in which every individual's existence is threatened without the empire's aid despite being surrounded by and working alongisde other members of the community.
If you'd like to get in touch with me, I am available at hello[@]noahzwillinger.com. I'm happy to discuss anything and love to learn from others. If there are any seeds or plants you are looking for, I may be able to point you in the right direction.
This is what you were born to do. It is in your blood simply because you are human. The garden is brilliant when you disappear into the thicket, when visitors merely presume nature was particularly abundant and beautiful in this plot.